Download VTU (Visvesvaraya Technological University) MBA 4th Semester (Fourth Semester) 16MBAHR401-Public Relations PR Module 2 Important Lecture Notes (MBA Study Material Notes)
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
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MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
Use and Gratification Theory
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
Use and Gratification Theory
Use and Gratification Theory
? People are active users of media and
choose how and when to use media
based on its gratification for them.
? You should research why your
particular publics use media. Do they
do it?
? as entertainment
? to scan the environment for items that are
important to them
? as a diversion
? as a substitute for personal relationships
? as a check on self-identity
The connection with PR?
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
Use and Gratification Theory
Use and Gratification Theory
? People are active users of media and
choose how and when to use media
based on its gratification for them.
? You should research why your
particular publics use media. Do they
do it?
? as entertainment
? to scan the environment for items that are
important to them
? as a diversion
? as a substitute for personal relationships
? as a check on self-identity
The connection with PR?
Application for the Practitioner
? The use and gratification theory helps
the practitioner explain media effects, or
the absence of effects.
? The practitioner must remember that just
because a message is available doesn?t
mean that people will pay attention and
remember it.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
Use and Gratification Theory
Use and Gratification Theory
? People are active users of media and
choose how and when to use media
based on its gratification for them.
? You should research why your
particular publics use media. Do they
do it?
? as entertainment
? to scan the environment for items that are
important to them
? as a diversion
? as a substitute for personal relationships
? as a check on self-identity
The connection with PR?
Application for the Practitioner
? The use and gratification theory helps
the practitioner explain media effects, or
the absence of effects.
? The practitioner must remember that just
because a message is available doesn?t
mean that people will pay attention and
remember it.
Agenda Setting Theory
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
Use and Gratification Theory
Use and Gratification Theory
? People are active users of media and
choose how and when to use media
based on its gratification for them.
? You should research why your
particular publics use media. Do they
do it?
? as entertainment
? to scan the environment for items that are
important to them
? as a diversion
? as a substitute for personal relationships
? as a check on self-identity
The connection with PR?
Application for the Practitioner
? The use and gratification theory helps
the practitioner explain media effects, or
the absence of effects.
? The practitioner must remember that just
because a message is available doesn?t
mean that people will pay attention and
remember it.
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting is based on the assumption
that although media can?t tell people what
opinion to hold about an issue, it has
influence on what issues people think about.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
Use and Gratification Theory
Use and Gratification Theory
? People are active users of media and
choose how and when to use media
based on its gratification for them.
? You should research why your
particular publics use media. Do they
do it?
? as entertainment
? to scan the environment for items that are
important to them
? as a diversion
? as a substitute for personal relationships
? as a check on self-identity
The connection with PR?
Application for the Practitioner
? The use and gratification theory helps
the practitioner explain media effects, or
the absence of effects.
? The practitioner must remember that just
because a message is available doesn?t
mean that people will pay attention and
remember it.
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting is based on the assumption
that although media can?t tell people what
opinion to hold about an issue, it has
influence on what issues people think about.
The Influence of Agenda
Setting
? The agenda setting theory proposes that
media has the potential to:
? build issue or product awareness
? increase issue salience(importance)
How do movies, mass media,
affect what issues people
discuss?
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
Use and Gratification Theory
Use and Gratification Theory
? People are active users of media and
choose how and when to use media
based on its gratification for them.
? You should research why your
particular publics use media. Do they
do it?
? as entertainment
? to scan the environment for items that are
important to them
? as a diversion
? as a substitute for personal relationships
? as a check on self-identity
The connection with PR?
Application for the Practitioner
? The use and gratification theory helps
the practitioner explain media effects, or
the absence of effects.
? The practitioner must remember that just
because a message is available doesn?t
mean that people will pay attention and
remember it.
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting is based on the assumption
that although media can?t tell people what
opinion to hold about an issue, it has
influence on what issues people think about.
The Influence of Agenda
Setting
? The agenda setting theory proposes that
media has the potential to:
? build issue or product awareness
? increase issue salience(importance)
How do movies, mass media,
affect what issues people
discuss?
PR Practitioner Roles
? There are two broad roles found in public relations.
? Technician: The public relations technician is largely
involved in implementing the strategies and tactics of a
campaign through writing, editing, taking photos, handling
communication production, running special events and
dealing with the media.
? Manager: The public relations manager is a problem-
solver that uses the PR process to support and influence
the goals of the organization.
There are three PR manager roles?
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
Use and Gratification Theory
Use and Gratification Theory
? People are active users of media and
choose how and when to use media
based on its gratification for them.
? You should research why your
particular publics use media. Do they
do it?
? as entertainment
? to scan the environment for items that are
important to them
? as a diversion
? as a substitute for personal relationships
? as a check on self-identity
The connection with PR?
Application for the Practitioner
? The use and gratification theory helps
the practitioner explain media effects, or
the absence of effects.
? The practitioner must remember that just
because a message is available doesn?t
mean that people will pay attention and
remember it.
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting is based on the assumption
that although media can?t tell people what
opinion to hold about an issue, it has
influence on what issues people think about.
The Influence of Agenda
Setting
? The agenda setting theory proposes that
media has the potential to:
? build issue or product awareness
? increase issue salience(importance)
How do movies, mass media,
affect what issues people
discuss?
PR Practitioner Roles
? There are two broad roles found in public relations.
? Technician: The public relations technician is largely
involved in implementing the strategies and tactics of a
campaign through writing, editing, taking photos, handling
communication production, running special events and
dealing with the media.
? Manager: The public relations manager is a problem-
solver that uses the PR process to support and influence
the goals of the organization.
There are three PR manager roles?
PR Manager Roles
? Expert Prescriber: works as a consultant to
define a problem, suggest options and oversee
implementation.
? Communication Facilitator: keeps two-way
communication open by spanning the boundary
between the organization and its environment.
? Problem-Solving Facilitator: works as a
partner with senior management to identify and
solve problems.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
Use and Gratification Theory
Use and Gratification Theory
? People are active users of media and
choose how and when to use media
based on its gratification for them.
? You should research why your
particular publics use media. Do they
do it?
? as entertainment
? to scan the environment for items that are
important to them
? as a diversion
? as a substitute for personal relationships
? as a check on self-identity
The connection with PR?
Application for the Practitioner
? The use and gratification theory helps
the practitioner explain media effects, or
the absence of effects.
? The practitioner must remember that just
because a message is available doesn?t
mean that people will pay attention and
remember it.
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting is based on the assumption
that although media can?t tell people what
opinion to hold about an issue, it has
influence on what issues people think about.
The Influence of Agenda
Setting
? The agenda setting theory proposes that
media has the potential to:
? build issue or product awareness
? increase issue salience(importance)
How do movies, mass media,
affect what issues people
discuss?
PR Practitioner Roles
? There are two broad roles found in public relations.
? Technician: The public relations technician is largely
involved in implementing the strategies and tactics of a
campaign through writing, editing, taking photos, handling
communication production, running special events and
dealing with the media.
? Manager: The public relations manager is a problem-
solver that uses the PR process to support and influence
the goals of the organization.
There are three PR manager roles?
PR Manager Roles
? Expert Prescriber: works as a consultant to
define a problem, suggest options and oversee
implementation.
? Communication Facilitator: keeps two-way
communication open by spanning the boundary
between the organization and its environment.
? Problem-Solving Facilitator: works as a
partner with senior management to identify and
solve problems.
Models of Public Relations
It is useful to examine the four public relations models
developed by Jim Grunig to understand the key
concepts of PR and how they are related to each
other. The models are based on the concepts of
communication and research.
? Press Agentry model
? Public information model
? Two-way asymmetric model
The four models are?
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
Use and Gratification Theory
Use and Gratification Theory
? People are active users of media and
choose how and when to use media
based on its gratification for them.
? You should research why your
particular publics use media. Do they
do it?
? as entertainment
? to scan the environment for items that are
important to them
? as a diversion
? as a substitute for personal relationships
? as a check on self-identity
The connection with PR?
Application for the Practitioner
? The use and gratification theory helps
the practitioner explain media effects, or
the absence of effects.
? The practitioner must remember that just
because a message is available doesn?t
mean that people will pay attention and
remember it.
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting is based on the assumption
that although media can?t tell people what
opinion to hold about an issue, it has
influence on what issues people think about.
The Influence of Agenda
Setting
? The agenda setting theory proposes that
media has the potential to:
? build issue or product awareness
? increase issue salience(importance)
How do movies, mass media,
affect what issues people
discuss?
PR Practitioner Roles
? There are two broad roles found in public relations.
? Technician: The public relations technician is largely
involved in implementing the strategies and tactics of a
campaign through writing, editing, taking photos, handling
communication production, running special events and
dealing with the media.
? Manager: The public relations manager is a problem-
solver that uses the PR process to support and influence
the goals of the organization.
There are three PR manager roles?
PR Manager Roles
? Expert Prescriber: works as a consultant to
define a problem, suggest options and oversee
implementation.
? Communication Facilitator: keeps two-way
communication open by spanning the boundary
between the organization and its environment.
? Problem-Solving Facilitator: works as a
partner with senior management to identify and
solve problems.
Models of Public Relations
It is useful to examine the four public relations models
developed by Jim Grunig to understand the key
concepts of PR and how they are related to each
other. The models are based on the concepts of
communication and research.
? Press Agentry model
? Public information model
? Two-way asymmetric model
The four models are?
Press Agentry Model
? The practitioner holds to a
one-way movement of
information from the
organization to its publics.
? This is the oldest form of
public relations and relies on
persuasion.
? In Grunig?s model, the intention often
is to deceive the receiver on some
level for manipulative purposes.
I
N
F
O
R
M
A
T
I
O
N
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
Use and Gratification Theory
Use and Gratification Theory
? People are active users of media and
choose how and when to use media
based on its gratification for them.
? You should research why your
particular publics use media. Do they
do it?
? as entertainment
? to scan the environment for items that are
important to them
? as a diversion
? as a substitute for personal relationships
? as a check on self-identity
The connection with PR?
Application for the Practitioner
? The use and gratification theory helps
the practitioner explain media effects, or
the absence of effects.
? The practitioner must remember that just
because a message is available doesn?t
mean that people will pay attention and
remember it.
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting is based on the assumption
that although media can?t tell people what
opinion to hold about an issue, it has
influence on what issues people think about.
The Influence of Agenda
Setting
? The agenda setting theory proposes that
media has the potential to:
? build issue or product awareness
? increase issue salience(importance)
How do movies, mass media,
affect what issues people
discuss?
PR Practitioner Roles
? There are two broad roles found in public relations.
? Technician: The public relations technician is largely
involved in implementing the strategies and tactics of a
campaign through writing, editing, taking photos, handling
communication production, running special events and
dealing with the media.
? Manager: The public relations manager is a problem-
solver that uses the PR process to support and influence
the goals of the organization.
There are three PR manager roles?
PR Manager Roles
? Expert Prescriber: works as a consultant to
define a problem, suggest options and oversee
implementation.
? Communication Facilitator: keeps two-way
communication open by spanning the boundary
between the organization and its environment.
? Problem-Solving Facilitator: works as a
partner with senior management to identify and
solve problems.
Models of Public Relations
It is useful to examine the four public relations models
developed by Jim Grunig to understand the key
concepts of PR and how they are related to each
other. The models are based on the concepts of
communication and research.
? Press Agentry model
? Public information model
? Two-way asymmetric model
The four models are?
Press Agentry Model
? The practitioner holds to a
one-way movement of
information from the
organization to its publics.
? This is the oldest form of
public relations and relies on
persuasion.
? In Grunig?s model, the intention often
is to deceive the receiver on some
level for manipulative purposes.
I
N
F
O
R
M
A
T
I
O
N
Public Information Model
? Like press agentry, this is a one-way
movement of information.
? The intent is to inform rather than press
for promotion and publicity.
? Often used by government, educational
institutions and not-for-profit organizations.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
Use and Gratification Theory
Use and Gratification Theory
? People are active users of media and
choose how and when to use media
based on its gratification for them.
? You should research why your
particular publics use media. Do they
do it?
? as entertainment
? to scan the environment for items that are
important to them
? as a diversion
? as a substitute for personal relationships
? as a check on self-identity
The connection with PR?
Application for the Practitioner
? The use and gratification theory helps
the practitioner explain media effects, or
the absence of effects.
? The practitioner must remember that just
because a message is available doesn?t
mean that people will pay attention and
remember it.
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting is based on the assumption
that although media can?t tell people what
opinion to hold about an issue, it has
influence on what issues people think about.
The Influence of Agenda
Setting
? The agenda setting theory proposes that
media has the potential to:
? build issue or product awareness
? increase issue salience(importance)
How do movies, mass media,
affect what issues people
discuss?
PR Practitioner Roles
? There are two broad roles found in public relations.
? Technician: The public relations technician is largely
involved in implementing the strategies and tactics of a
campaign through writing, editing, taking photos, handling
communication production, running special events and
dealing with the media.
? Manager: The public relations manager is a problem-
solver that uses the PR process to support and influence
the goals of the organization.
There are three PR manager roles?
PR Manager Roles
? Expert Prescriber: works as a consultant to
define a problem, suggest options and oversee
implementation.
? Communication Facilitator: keeps two-way
communication open by spanning the boundary
between the organization and its environment.
? Problem-Solving Facilitator: works as a
partner with senior management to identify and
solve problems.
Models of Public Relations
It is useful to examine the four public relations models
developed by Jim Grunig to understand the key
concepts of PR and how they are related to each
other. The models are based on the concepts of
communication and research.
? Press Agentry model
? Public information model
? Two-way asymmetric model
The four models are?
Press Agentry Model
? The practitioner holds to a
one-way movement of
information from the
organization to its publics.
? This is the oldest form of
public relations and relies on
persuasion.
? In Grunig?s model, the intention often
is to deceive the receiver on some
level for manipulative purposes.
I
N
F
O
R
M
A
T
I
O
N
Public Information Model
? Like press agentry, this is a one-way
movement of information.
? The intent is to inform rather than press
for promotion and publicity.
? Often used by government, educational
institutions and not-for-profit organizations.
Two-way Asymmetric Model
? Organization uses social science
research methods to persuade in a two-
way exchange of information.
? This includes the use of surveys, interviews
and focus groups.
? This model is more interested in influencing
publics about the company than influencing
the company.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
Use and Gratification Theory
Use and Gratification Theory
? People are active users of media and
choose how and when to use media
based on its gratification for them.
? You should research why your
particular publics use media. Do they
do it?
? as entertainment
? to scan the environment for items that are
important to them
? as a diversion
? as a substitute for personal relationships
? as a check on self-identity
The connection with PR?
Application for the Practitioner
? The use and gratification theory helps
the practitioner explain media effects, or
the absence of effects.
? The practitioner must remember that just
because a message is available doesn?t
mean that people will pay attention and
remember it.
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting is based on the assumption
that although media can?t tell people what
opinion to hold about an issue, it has
influence on what issues people think about.
The Influence of Agenda
Setting
? The agenda setting theory proposes that
media has the potential to:
? build issue or product awareness
? increase issue salience(importance)
How do movies, mass media,
affect what issues people
discuss?
PR Practitioner Roles
? There are two broad roles found in public relations.
? Technician: The public relations technician is largely
involved in implementing the strategies and tactics of a
campaign through writing, editing, taking photos, handling
communication production, running special events and
dealing with the media.
? Manager: The public relations manager is a problem-
solver that uses the PR process to support and influence
the goals of the organization.
There are three PR manager roles?
PR Manager Roles
? Expert Prescriber: works as a consultant to
define a problem, suggest options and oversee
implementation.
? Communication Facilitator: keeps two-way
communication open by spanning the boundary
between the organization and its environment.
? Problem-Solving Facilitator: works as a
partner with senior management to identify and
solve problems.
Models of Public Relations
It is useful to examine the four public relations models
developed by Jim Grunig to understand the key
concepts of PR and how they are related to each
other. The models are based on the concepts of
communication and research.
? Press Agentry model
? Public information model
? Two-way asymmetric model
The four models are?
Press Agentry Model
? The practitioner holds to a
one-way movement of
information from the
organization to its publics.
? This is the oldest form of
public relations and relies on
persuasion.
? In Grunig?s model, the intention often
is to deceive the receiver on some
level for manipulative purposes.
I
N
F
O
R
M
A
T
I
O
N
Public Information Model
? Like press agentry, this is a one-way
movement of information.
? The intent is to inform rather than press
for promotion and publicity.
? Often used by government, educational
institutions and not-for-profit organizations.
Two-way Asymmetric Model
? Organization uses social science
research methods to persuade in a two-
way exchange of information.
? This includes the use of surveys, interviews
and focus groups.
? This model is more interested in influencing
publics about the company than influencing
the company.
Two-way Symmetric Model
? Organization seeks mutual
understanding and influence with its
publics rather than one-way persuasion.
? The organization and the public adjust to
one another.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
Use and Gratification Theory
Use and Gratification Theory
? People are active users of media and
choose how and when to use media
based on its gratification for them.
? You should research why your
particular publics use media. Do they
do it?
? as entertainment
? to scan the environment for items that are
important to them
? as a diversion
? as a substitute for personal relationships
? as a check on self-identity
The connection with PR?
Application for the Practitioner
? The use and gratification theory helps
the practitioner explain media effects, or
the absence of effects.
? The practitioner must remember that just
because a message is available doesn?t
mean that people will pay attention and
remember it.
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting is based on the assumption
that although media can?t tell people what
opinion to hold about an issue, it has
influence on what issues people think about.
The Influence of Agenda
Setting
? The agenda setting theory proposes that
media has the potential to:
? build issue or product awareness
? increase issue salience(importance)
How do movies, mass media,
affect what issues people
discuss?
PR Practitioner Roles
? There are two broad roles found in public relations.
? Technician: The public relations technician is largely
involved in implementing the strategies and tactics of a
campaign through writing, editing, taking photos, handling
communication production, running special events and
dealing with the media.
? Manager: The public relations manager is a problem-
solver that uses the PR process to support and influence
the goals of the organization.
There are three PR manager roles?
PR Manager Roles
? Expert Prescriber: works as a consultant to
define a problem, suggest options and oversee
implementation.
? Communication Facilitator: keeps two-way
communication open by spanning the boundary
between the organization and its environment.
? Problem-Solving Facilitator: works as a
partner with senior management to identify and
solve problems.
Models of Public Relations
It is useful to examine the four public relations models
developed by Jim Grunig to understand the key
concepts of PR and how they are related to each
other. The models are based on the concepts of
communication and research.
? Press Agentry model
? Public information model
? Two-way asymmetric model
The four models are?
Press Agentry Model
? The practitioner holds to a
one-way movement of
information from the
organization to its publics.
? This is the oldest form of
public relations and relies on
persuasion.
? In Grunig?s model, the intention often
is to deceive the receiver on some
level for manipulative purposes.
I
N
F
O
R
M
A
T
I
O
N
Public Information Model
? Like press agentry, this is a one-way
movement of information.
? The intent is to inform rather than press
for promotion and publicity.
? Often used by government, educational
institutions and not-for-profit organizations.
Two-way Asymmetric Model
? Organization uses social science
research methods to persuade in a two-
way exchange of information.
? This includes the use of surveys, interviews
and focus groups.
? This model is more interested in influencing
publics about the company than influencing
the company.
Two-way Symmetric Model
? Organization seeks mutual
understanding and influence with its
publics rather than one-way persuasion.
? The organization and the public adjust to
one another.
New Model of Symmetry
In 1995 a new model of public relations was
developed. This model is known as the
Model of Symmetry as Two-Way
Practice
In this model, the publics and the organization are on
a continuum. PR practitioners use both two-way
symmetrical and two-way asymmetrical models as
needed. The organization and the public seek to
persuade each other as much as possible.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
Use and Gratification Theory
Use and Gratification Theory
? People are active users of media and
choose how and when to use media
based on its gratification for them.
? You should research why your
particular publics use media. Do they
do it?
? as entertainment
? to scan the environment for items that are
important to them
? as a diversion
? as a substitute for personal relationships
? as a check on self-identity
The connection with PR?
Application for the Practitioner
? The use and gratification theory helps
the practitioner explain media effects, or
the absence of effects.
? The practitioner must remember that just
because a message is available doesn?t
mean that people will pay attention and
remember it.
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting is based on the assumption
that although media can?t tell people what
opinion to hold about an issue, it has
influence on what issues people think about.
The Influence of Agenda
Setting
? The agenda setting theory proposes that
media has the potential to:
? build issue or product awareness
? increase issue salience(importance)
How do movies, mass media,
affect what issues people
discuss?
PR Practitioner Roles
? There are two broad roles found in public relations.
? Technician: The public relations technician is largely
involved in implementing the strategies and tactics of a
campaign through writing, editing, taking photos, handling
communication production, running special events and
dealing with the media.
? Manager: The public relations manager is a problem-
solver that uses the PR process to support and influence
the goals of the organization.
There are three PR manager roles?
PR Manager Roles
? Expert Prescriber: works as a consultant to
define a problem, suggest options and oversee
implementation.
? Communication Facilitator: keeps two-way
communication open by spanning the boundary
between the organization and its environment.
? Problem-Solving Facilitator: works as a
partner with senior management to identify and
solve problems.
Models of Public Relations
It is useful to examine the four public relations models
developed by Jim Grunig to understand the key
concepts of PR and how they are related to each
other. The models are based on the concepts of
communication and research.
? Press Agentry model
? Public information model
? Two-way asymmetric model
The four models are?
Press Agentry Model
? The practitioner holds to a
one-way movement of
information from the
organization to its publics.
? This is the oldest form of
public relations and relies on
persuasion.
? In Grunig?s model, the intention often
is to deceive the receiver on some
level for manipulative purposes.
I
N
F
O
R
M
A
T
I
O
N
Public Information Model
? Like press agentry, this is a one-way
movement of information.
? The intent is to inform rather than press
for promotion and publicity.
? Often used by government, educational
institutions and not-for-profit organizations.
Two-way Asymmetric Model
? Organization uses social science
research methods to persuade in a two-
way exchange of information.
? This includes the use of surveys, interviews
and focus groups.
? This model is more interested in influencing
publics about the company than influencing
the company.
Two-way Symmetric Model
? Organization seeks mutual
understanding and influence with its
publics rather than one-way persuasion.
? The organization and the public adjust to
one another.
New Model of Symmetry
In 1995 a new model of public relations was
developed. This model is known as the
Model of Symmetry as Two-Way
Practice
In this model, the publics and the organization are on
a continuum. PR practitioners use both two-way
symmetrical and two-way asymmetrical models as
needed. The organization and the public seek to
persuade each other as much as possible.
Developing Models of Public
Relations
Two new models have been developed that fall into the
asymmetrical category:
Cultural Interpreter Model: applies to companies that
do business in other countries and need to be cognizant
of the language, culture, customs and political systems of
those countries.
Personal Influence Model: applies to practitioners who
try to develop personal relationships with key individuals
who can then be contacted as needed by the practitioner.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
Use and Gratification Theory
Use and Gratification Theory
? People are active users of media and
choose how and when to use media
based on its gratification for them.
? You should research why your
particular publics use media. Do they
do it?
? as entertainment
? to scan the environment for items that are
important to them
? as a diversion
? as a substitute for personal relationships
? as a check on self-identity
The connection with PR?
Application for the Practitioner
? The use and gratification theory helps
the practitioner explain media effects, or
the absence of effects.
? The practitioner must remember that just
because a message is available doesn?t
mean that people will pay attention and
remember it.
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting is based on the assumption
that although media can?t tell people what
opinion to hold about an issue, it has
influence on what issues people think about.
The Influence of Agenda
Setting
? The agenda setting theory proposes that
media has the potential to:
? build issue or product awareness
? increase issue salience(importance)
How do movies, mass media,
affect what issues people
discuss?
PR Practitioner Roles
? There are two broad roles found in public relations.
? Technician: The public relations technician is largely
involved in implementing the strategies and tactics of a
campaign through writing, editing, taking photos, handling
communication production, running special events and
dealing with the media.
? Manager: The public relations manager is a problem-
solver that uses the PR process to support and influence
the goals of the organization.
There are three PR manager roles?
PR Manager Roles
? Expert Prescriber: works as a consultant to
define a problem, suggest options and oversee
implementation.
? Communication Facilitator: keeps two-way
communication open by spanning the boundary
between the organization and its environment.
? Problem-Solving Facilitator: works as a
partner with senior management to identify and
solve problems.
Models of Public Relations
It is useful to examine the four public relations models
developed by Jim Grunig to understand the key
concepts of PR and how they are related to each
other. The models are based on the concepts of
communication and research.
? Press Agentry model
? Public information model
? Two-way asymmetric model
The four models are?
Press Agentry Model
? The practitioner holds to a
one-way movement of
information from the
organization to its publics.
? This is the oldest form of
public relations and relies on
persuasion.
? In Grunig?s model, the intention often
is to deceive the receiver on some
level for manipulative purposes.
I
N
F
O
R
M
A
T
I
O
N
Public Information Model
? Like press agentry, this is a one-way
movement of information.
? The intent is to inform rather than press
for promotion and publicity.
? Often used by government, educational
institutions and not-for-profit organizations.
Two-way Asymmetric Model
? Organization uses social science
research methods to persuade in a two-
way exchange of information.
? This includes the use of surveys, interviews
and focus groups.
? This model is more interested in influencing
publics about the company than influencing
the company.
Two-way Symmetric Model
? Organization seeks mutual
understanding and influence with its
publics rather than one-way persuasion.
? The organization and the public adjust to
one another.
New Model of Symmetry
In 1995 a new model of public relations was
developed. This model is known as the
Model of Symmetry as Two-Way
Practice
In this model, the publics and the organization are on
a continuum. PR practitioners use both two-way
symmetrical and two-way asymmetrical models as
needed. The organization and the public seek to
persuade each other as much as possible.
Developing Models of Public
Relations
Two new models have been developed that fall into the
asymmetrical category:
Cultural Interpreter Model: applies to companies that
do business in other countries and need to be cognizant
of the language, culture, customs and political systems of
those countries.
Personal Influence Model: applies to practitioners who
try to develop personal relationships with key individuals
who can then be contacted as needed by the practitioner.
Approaches to Conflict
Resolutions
? Conflict involves an individual or group
actively opposing another?s values or
goals.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
Use and Gratification Theory
Use and Gratification Theory
? People are active users of media and
choose how and when to use media
based on its gratification for them.
? You should research why your
particular publics use media. Do they
do it?
? as entertainment
? to scan the environment for items that are
important to them
? as a diversion
? as a substitute for personal relationships
? as a check on self-identity
The connection with PR?
Application for the Practitioner
? The use and gratification theory helps
the practitioner explain media effects, or
the absence of effects.
? The practitioner must remember that just
because a message is available doesn?t
mean that people will pay attention and
remember it.
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting is based on the assumption
that although media can?t tell people what
opinion to hold about an issue, it has
influence on what issues people think about.
The Influence of Agenda
Setting
? The agenda setting theory proposes that
media has the potential to:
? build issue or product awareness
? increase issue salience(importance)
How do movies, mass media,
affect what issues people
discuss?
PR Practitioner Roles
? There are two broad roles found in public relations.
? Technician: The public relations technician is largely
involved in implementing the strategies and tactics of a
campaign through writing, editing, taking photos, handling
communication production, running special events and
dealing with the media.
? Manager: The public relations manager is a problem-
solver that uses the PR process to support and influence
the goals of the organization.
There are three PR manager roles?
PR Manager Roles
? Expert Prescriber: works as a consultant to
define a problem, suggest options and oversee
implementation.
? Communication Facilitator: keeps two-way
communication open by spanning the boundary
between the organization and its environment.
? Problem-Solving Facilitator: works as a
partner with senior management to identify and
solve problems.
Models of Public Relations
It is useful to examine the four public relations models
developed by Jim Grunig to understand the key
concepts of PR and how they are related to each
other. The models are based on the concepts of
communication and research.
? Press Agentry model
? Public information model
? Two-way asymmetric model
The four models are?
Press Agentry Model
? The practitioner holds to a
one-way movement of
information from the
organization to its publics.
? This is the oldest form of
public relations and relies on
persuasion.
? In Grunig?s model, the intention often
is to deceive the receiver on some
level for manipulative purposes.
I
N
F
O
R
M
A
T
I
O
N
Public Information Model
? Like press agentry, this is a one-way
movement of information.
? The intent is to inform rather than press
for promotion and publicity.
? Often used by government, educational
institutions and not-for-profit organizations.
Two-way Asymmetric Model
? Organization uses social science
research methods to persuade in a two-
way exchange of information.
? This includes the use of surveys, interviews
and focus groups.
? This model is more interested in influencing
publics about the company than influencing
the company.
Two-way Symmetric Model
? Organization seeks mutual
understanding and influence with its
publics rather than one-way persuasion.
? The organization and the public adjust to
one another.
New Model of Symmetry
In 1995 a new model of public relations was
developed. This model is known as the
Model of Symmetry as Two-Way
Practice
In this model, the publics and the organization are on
a continuum. PR practitioners use both two-way
symmetrical and two-way asymmetrical models as
needed. The organization and the public seek to
persuade each other as much as possible.
Developing Models of Public
Relations
Two new models have been developed that fall into the
asymmetrical category:
Cultural Interpreter Model: applies to companies that
do business in other countries and need to be cognizant
of the language, culture, customs and political systems of
those countries.
Personal Influence Model: applies to practitioners who
try to develop personal relationships with key individuals
who can then be contacted as needed by the practitioner.
Approaches to Conflict
Resolutions
? Conflict involves an individual or group
actively opposing another?s values or
goals.
Plowman, Briggs, and Huang identified nine types
of conflict resolution strategies and linked
them to the motives of organizations and publics:
? 1.Contention: Involves one party forcing its position
on another.
? 2.Cooperation: Both parties work together to reach
a mutually beneficial solution.
? 3.Accomodation: One party partially yields on its
position and lowers its aspirations.
? 4.Avoidance: One or both parties leave the conflict
either physically or psychologically.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
Use and Gratification Theory
Use and Gratification Theory
? People are active users of media and
choose how and when to use media
based on its gratification for them.
? You should research why your
particular publics use media. Do they
do it?
? as entertainment
? to scan the environment for items that are
important to them
? as a diversion
? as a substitute for personal relationships
? as a check on self-identity
The connection with PR?
Application for the Practitioner
? The use and gratification theory helps
the practitioner explain media effects, or
the absence of effects.
? The practitioner must remember that just
because a message is available doesn?t
mean that people will pay attention and
remember it.
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting is based on the assumption
that although media can?t tell people what
opinion to hold about an issue, it has
influence on what issues people think about.
The Influence of Agenda
Setting
? The agenda setting theory proposes that
media has the potential to:
? build issue or product awareness
? increase issue salience(importance)
How do movies, mass media,
affect what issues people
discuss?
PR Practitioner Roles
? There are two broad roles found in public relations.
? Technician: The public relations technician is largely
involved in implementing the strategies and tactics of a
campaign through writing, editing, taking photos, handling
communication production, running special events and
dealing with the media.
? Manager: The public relations manager is a problem-
solver that uses the PR process to support and influence
the goals of the organization.
There are three PR manager roles?
PR Manager Roles
? Expert Prescriber: works as a consultant to
define a problem, suggest options and oversee
implementation.
? Communication Facilitator: keeps two-way
communication open by spanning the boundary
between the organization and its environment.
? Problem-Solving Facilitator: works as a
partner with senior management to identify and
solve problems.
Models of Public Relations
It is useful to examine the four public relations models
developed by Jim Grunig to understand the key
concepts of PR and how they are related to each
other. The models are based on the concepts of
communication and research.
? Press Agentry model
? Public information model
? Two-way asymmetric model
The four models are?
Press Agentry Model
? The practitioner holds to a
one-way movement of
information from the
organization to its publics.
? This is the oldest form of
public relations and relies on
persuasion.
? In Grunig?s model, the intention often
is to deceive the receiver on some
level for manipulative purposes.
I
N
F
O
R
M
A
T
I
O
N
Public Information Model
? Like press agentry, this is a one-way
movement of information.
? The intent is to inform rather than press
for promotion and publicity.
? Often used by government, educational
institutions and not-for-profit organizations.
Two-way Asymmetric Model
? Organization uses social science
research methods to persuade in a two-
way exchange of information.
? This includes the use of surveys, interviews
and focus groups.
? This model is more interested in influencing
publics about the company than influencing
the company.
Two-way Symmetric Model
? Organization seeks mutual
understanding and influence with its
publics rather than one-way persuasion.
? The organization and the public adjust to
one another.
New Model of Symmetry
In 1995 a new model of public relations was
developed. This model is known as the
Model of Symmetry as Two-Way
Practice
In this model, the publics and the organization are on
a continuum. PR practitioners use both two-way
symmetrical and two-way asymmetrical models as
needed. The organization and the public seek to
persuade each other as much as possible.
Developing Models of Public
Relations
Two new models have been developed that fall into the
asymmetrical category:
Cultural Interpreter Model: applies to companies that
do business in other countries and need to be cognizant
of the language, culture, customs and political systems of
those countries.
Personal Influence Model: applies to practitioners who
try to develop personal relationships with key individuals
who can then be contacted as needed by the practitioner.
Approaches to Conflict
Resolutions
? Conflict involves an individual or group
actively opposing another?s values or
goals.
Plowman, Briggs, and Huang identified nine types
of conflict resolution strategies and linked
them to the motives of organizations and publics:
? 1.Contention: Involves one party forcing its position
on another.
? 2.Cooperation: Both parties work together to reach
a mutually beneficial solution.
? 3.Accomodation: One party partially yields on its
position and lowers its aspirations.
? 4.Avoidance: One or both parties leave the conflict
either physically or psychologically.
? 5.Unconditional Constructive: The
organization resolves the strategic
interests of both the organization and its
publics.
? 6.Compromise: An alternative agreement
that stands part way between the parties
preferred positions..
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
Use and Gratification Theory
Use and Gratification Theory
? People are active users of media and
choose how and when to use media
based on its gratification for them.
? You should research why your
particular publics use media. Do they
do it?
? as entertainment
? to scan the environment for items that are
important to them
? as a diversion
? as a substitute for personal relationships
? as a check on self-identity
The connection with PR?
Application for the Practitioner
? The use and gratification theory helps
the practitioner explain media effects, or
the absence of effects.
? The practitioner must remember that just
because a message is available doesn?t
mean that people will pay attention and
remember it.
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting is based on the assumption
that although media can?t tell people what
opinion to hold about an issue, it has
influence on what issues people think about.
The Influence of Agenda
Setting
? The agenda setting theory proposes that
media has the potential to:
? build issue or product awareness
? increase issue salience(importance)
How do movies, mass media,
affect what issues people
discuss?
PR Practitioner Roles
? There are two broad roles found in public relations.
? Technician: The public relations technician is largely
involved in implementing the strategies and tactics of a
campaign through writing, editing, taking photos, handling
communication production, running special events and
dealing with the media.
? Manager: The public relations manager is a problem-
solver that uses the PR process to support and influence
the goals of the organization.
There are three PR manager roles?
PR Manager Roles
? Expert Prescriber: works as a consultant to
define a problem, suggest options and oversee
implementation.
? Communication Facilitator: keeps two-way
communication open by spanning the boundary
between the organization and its environment.
? Problem-Solving Facilitator: works as a
partner with senior management to identify and
solve problems.
Models of Public Relations
It is useful to examine the four public relations models
developed by Jim Grunig to understand the key
concepts of PR and how they are related to each
other. The models are based on the concepts of
communication and research.
? Press Agentry model
? Public information model
? Two-way asymmetric model
The four models are?
Press Agentry Model
? The practitioner holds to a
one-way movement of
information from the
organization to its publics.
? This is the oldest form of
public relations and relies on
persuasion.
? In Grunig?s model, the intention often
is to deceive the receiver on some
level for manipulative purposes.
I
N
F
O
R
M
A
T
I
O
N
Public Information Model
? Like press agentry, this is a one-way
movement of information.
? The intent is to inform rather than press
for promotion and publicity.
? Often used by government, educational
institutions and not-for-profit organizations.
Two-way Asymmetric Model
? Organization uses social science
research methods to persuade in a two-
way exchange of information.
? This includes the use of surveys, interviews
and focus groups.
? This model is more interested in influencing
publics about the company than influencing
the company.
Two-way Symmetric Model
? Organization seeks mutual
understanding and influence with its
publics rather than one-way persuasion.
? The organization and the public adjust to
one another.
New Model of Symmetry
In 1995 a new model of public relations was
developed. This model is known as the
Model of Symmetry as Two-Way
Practice
In this model, the publics and the organization are on
a continuum. PR practitioners use both two-way
symmetrical and two-way asymmetrical models as
needed. The organization and the public seek to
persuade each other as much as possible.
Developing Models of Public
Relations
Two new models have been developed that fall into the
asymmetrical category:
Cultural Interpreter Model: applies to companies that
do business in other countries and need to be cognizant
of the language, culture, customs and political systems of
those countries.
Personal Influence Model: applies to practitioners who
try to develop personal relationships with key individuals
who can then be contacted as needed by the practitioner.
Approaches to Conflict
Resolutions
? Conflict involves an individual or group
actively opposing another?s values or
goals.
Plowman, Briggs, and Huang identified nine types
of conflict resolution strategies and linked
them to the motives of organizations and publics:
? 1.Contention: Involves one party forcing its position
on another.
? 2.Cooperation: Both parties work together to reach
a mutually beneficial solution.
? 3.Accomodation: One party partially yields on its
position and lowers its aspirations.
? 4.Avoidance: One or both parties leave the conflict
either physically or psychologically.
? 5.Unconditional Constructive: The
organization resolves the strategic
interests of both the organization and its
publics.
? 6.Compromise: An alternative agreement
that stands part way between the parties
preferred positions..
? 7.Principled: Both parties hold to higher
ethics that cannot be compromised.
? 8.Win-Win or No Deal: Both parties hold
off on any agreement until they are ready
for the deal to be struck.
? 9.Mediated: Involves use of an outside
disinterested party.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
Use and Gratification Theory
Use and Gratification Theory
? People are active users of media and
choose how and when to use media
based on its gratification for them.
? You should research why your
particular publics use media. Do they
do it?
? as entertainment
? to scan the environment for items that are
important to them
? as a diversion
? as a substitute for personal relationships
? as a check on self-identity
The connection with PR?
Application for the Practitioner
? The use and gratification theory helps
the practitioner explain media effects, or
the absence of effects.
? The practitioner must remember that just
because a message is available doesn?t
mean that people will pay attention and
remember it.
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting is based on the assumption
that although media can?t tell people what
opinion to hold about an issue, it has
influence on what issues people think about.
The Influence of Agenda
Setting
? The agenda setting theory proposes that
media has the potential to:
? build issue or product awareness
? increase issue salience(importance)
How do movies, mass media,
affect what issues people
discuss?
PR Practitioner Roles
? There are two broad roles found in public relations.
? Technician: The public relations technician is largely
involved in implementing the strategies and tactics of a
campaign through writing, editing, taking photos, handling
communication production, running special events and
dealing with the media.
? Manager: The public relations manager is a problem-
solver that uses the PR process to support and influence
the goals of the organization.
There are three PR manager roles?
PR Manager Roles
? Expert Prescriber: works as a consultant to
define a problem, suggest options and oversee
implementation.
? Communication Facilitator: keeps two-way
communication open by spanning the boundary
between the organization and its environment.
? Problem-Solving Facilitator: works as a
partner with senior management to identify and
solve problems.
Models of Public Relations
It is useful to examine the four public relations models
developed by Jim Grunig to understand the key
concepts of PR and how they are related to each
other. The models are based on the concepts of
communication and research.
? Press Agentry model
? Public information model
? Two-way asymmetric model
The four models are?
Press Agentry Model
? The practitioner holds to a
one-way movement of
information from the
organization to its publics.
? This is the oldest form of
public relations and relies on
persuasion.
? In Grunig?s model, the intention often
is to deceive the receiver on some
level for manipulative purposes.
I
N
F
O
R
M
A
T
I
O
N
Public Information Model
? Like press agentry, this is a one-way
movement of information.
? The intent is to inform rather than press
for promotion and publicity.
? Often used by government, educational
institutions and not-for-profit organizations.
Two-way Asymmetric Model
? Organization uses social science
research methods to persuade in a two-
way exchange of information.
? This includes the use of surveys, interviews
and focus groups.
? This model is more interested in influencing
publics about the company than influencing
the company.
Two-way Symmetric Model
? Organization seeks mutual
understanding and influence with its
publics rather than one-way persuasion.
? The organization and the public adjust to
one another.
New Model of Symmetry
In 1995 a new model of public relations was
developed. This model is known as the
Model of Symmetry as Two-Way
Practice
In this model, the publics and the organization are on
a continuum. PR practitioners use both two-way
symmetrical and two-way asymmetrical models as
needed. The organization and the public seek to
persuade each other as much as possible.
Developing Models of Public
Relations
Two new models have been developed that fall into the
asymmetrical category:
Cultural Interpreter Model: applies to companies that
do business in other countries and need to be cognizant
of the language, culture, customs and political systems of
those countries.
Personal Influence Model: applies to practitioners who
try to develop personal relationships with key individuals
who can then be contacted as needed by the practitioner.
Approaches to Conflict
Resolutions
? Conflict involves an individual or group
actively opposing another?s values or
goals.
Plowman, Briggs, and Huang identified nine types
of conflict resolution strategies and linked
them to the motives of organizations and publics:
? 1.Contention: Involves one party forcing its position
on another.
? 2.Cooperation: Both parties work together to reach
a mutually beneficial solution.
? 3.Accomodation: One party partially yields on its
position and lowers its aspirations.
? 4.Avoidance: One or both parties leave the conflict
either physically or psychologically.
? 5.Unconditional Constructive: The
organization resolves the strategic
interests of both the organization and its
publics.
? 6.Compromise: An alternative agreement
that stands part way between the parties
preferred positions..
? 7.Principled: Both parties hold to higher
ethics that cannot be compromised.
? 8.Win-Win or No Deal: Both parties hold
off on any agreement until they are ready
for the deal to be struck.
? 9.Mediated: Involves use of an outside
disinterested party.
In Summary?
Understanding the theories behind the
behavior of an organization?s publics is
essential for developing strategies and
tactics that can help an organization
achieve its goals. Modern PR
practitioners focus on two-way
communication that values the input of
the publics as much as the persuasive
power of the company.
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MODULE - 2
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR
PUBLIC RELATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Know why the practitioner needs to
understand theories of human
relationships and behavior.
2. Comprehend the three theories about
human relationships.
3. Understand and know how to apply the
theories about cognition and behavior and
mass communication.
Why Understand Theory?
Theories help practitioners explain and
predict human behavior and
communication and guide organizational
decision making.
How Theories Connect with
Public Relations
? What is theory?
? A theory is a prediction of how events and
actions are related.
? How do theories help the PR practitioner?
? Using theories can make campaigns and
messages more effective.
THEORIES
? Theories Of Relationships
1) Systems Theory
2) Situational Theory
? Theories of Persuasion and social influence
1)Social Exchange Theory
2) Diffusion Theory
3) Social Learning Theory
4) Elaborated Likelihood Theory
? Theories of Mass Communication
1)Uses and Gratification Theory
2)Agenda Setting Theory
Theories of Relationships
? The cause-effect principles or theories can
guide you in understanding how
organizations relate to their publics.
? Systems theory
? Situational theory
Systems Theory
? Definition: The attitudes and actions of
an organization or public contribute to
a cause-effect chain reaction within
their environment.
? The parts of an organization and public
exist in relationship to each other.
? Meaning the actions of one part affect the
others.
Applying Systems Theory to
Public Relations
? Systems theory is especially useful to
public relations because it helps the
practitioner manage the organization?s
relationships.
? This theory emphasizes interdependence
between an organization and its internal
and external environments.
Closed and Open Systems
? Closed System: Focuses on the history of
the organization and makes decisions
based on past experiences.
? Open System: Focuses on input from
external publics and the organization?s
external environment.
Situational Theory Situational Theory
? Definition: People will act on an issue or situation
when they believe it affects them personally and
their actions can make a difference.
? Three variables:
? Problem recognition: People must be able to see the
potential of an issue to affect them personally.
? Constraint recognition: People must see that they can
do something about the issue.
? Level of involvement: People must care about resolving
the issue.
Two Benefits of Situational
Theory
? Helps the practitioner predict when groups
will become active or remain apathetic.
? Helps the practitioner create
communication strategies for specific
publics.
THEORIES OF PERSUASION
AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Persuasion and Social influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to
wear to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn?t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
Social Influence
? Social influence ?
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from others.
A
1 2 3
What would you
say if you were in
a group of 6
others, and all
agreed the answer
was 3?
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most closely
matches line A on the right?
A
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once
if the group gave a
wrong answer.
Conformity: Asch?s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got all the
answers correct.
Conclusion: People faced
with strong group consensus
sometimes go along even
though they think the others
may be wrong.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory
People generally
act in ways that
they assume will
reduce costs and
increase rewards.
D
E
C
R
E
A
S
E
I
N
C
R
E
A
S
E
Social Exchange Theory
? PR practitioners try to make decisions based
on the assertion that people will factor in the
consequences of their behavior before they
act.
? Practitioners must try to keep costs low and
rewards high in everything from survey
responses to product recalls.
? When the situation is complex, the
practitioner must employ a pay-off matrix to
evaluate all possible decisions and with their
accompanying costs and rewards.
Pay-off Matrix Example
(Based on Social Exchange Theory)
Issue:
Defective lot of screws
Customers
United PR
Works
Option 1:
Recall Screws
Option 2:
Ignore Defect
Find Out Doesn?t Find Out
Rewards
Rewards
Rewards
N/A
Costs
Costs
Costs
N/A
?Company
tied with
quality
?positive
publicity
?money
?Initial
negative
publicity
?lose
goodwill
?negative
publicity
?law suits
?lose customers
?no immediate
cost
?no
negative
publicity
?save
cost of
recall
The Firestone Tire Example
? An example of a true
public relations disaster
is the Firestone tire
company.
? Click on the image to
read from CNN how
executives? PR gamble
can go bad.
DIFFUSION THEORY
Diffusion Theory
Individuals can be influenced to diffuse
and adopt an idea by going through five
stages.
Mass media is useful in the first two stages,
and personal influence is needed in the next
two before adoption takes place.
1. awareness
2. interest
3. evaluation
4. trial
5. adoption
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory
? Personal example and mass media can
be important for acquiring new behaviors.
? New behavior is likely to occur when it is
seen as potentially rewarding.
What makes people
change their minds?
Elaborated Likelihood Model
Elaborated Likelihood Model
? Describes two routes to possible
changes in human attitudes and
behavior.
? Understanding these two options helps
the practitioner devise effective ways to
present information.
The Central Route
? In the Elaborated Likelihood Model, the
central route of communicating a
message presumes that people are
interested in your message, will actively
think about an issue and will evaluate it
with an open mind.
But, that?s not always the
case?
The Peripheral Route
? The peripheral route is taken when a
receiver is deemed unable or unwilling
to think directly about an issue.
? Hence the person is presented with
softer cues peripheral to the issue, such
as?
? repetition of the message
? credible sources
? rewards or premium
A Summary of Theories of
Persuasion and social influence
? Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that
reduce costs and increase rewards.
? Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to
diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.
? Social Learning Theory: New behavior is likely to
occur when it is seen as potentially rewarding.
? Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies
choose between central/peripheral routes based on
receiver?s motivation to process.
Theories of Mass Communication
? There are two theories that help us
understand the powerful influence of
media.
? Use and Gratification Theory
? Agenda Setting Theory
How do we define
media?
A Definition of Media ? The English word media is a Latin derivative of
medius, meaning middle.
? For our purposes we define media as?
? all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and
TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc.,
usually along with advertising (Webster?s New World College
Dictionary, 1999).
Use and Gratification Theory
Use and Gratification Theory
? People are active users of media and
choose how and when to use media
based on its gratification for them.
? You should research why your
particular publics use media. Do they
do it?
? as entertainment
? to scan the environment for items that are
important to them
? as a diversion
? as a substitute for personal relationships
? as a check on self-identity
The connection with PR?
Application for the Practitioner
? The use and gratification theory helps
the practitioner explain media effects, or
the absence of effects.
? The practitioner must remember that just
because a message is available doesn?t
mean that people will pay attention and
remember it.
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting Theory
Agenda Setting is based on the assumption
that although media can?t tell people what
opinion to hold about an issue, it has
influence on what issues people think about.
The Influence of Agenda
Setting
? The agenda setting theory proposes that
media has the potential to:
? build issue or product awareness
? increase issue salience(importance)
How do movies, mass media,
affect what issues people
discuss?
PR Practitioner Roles
? There are two broad roles found in public relations.
? Technician: The public relations technician is largely
involved in implementing the strategies and tactics of a
campaign through writing, editing, taking photos, handling
communication production, running special events and
dealing with the media.
? Manager: The public relations manager is a problem-
solver that uses the PR process to support and influence
the goals of the organization.
There are three PR manager roles?
PR Manager Roles
? Expert Prescriber: works as a consultant to
define a problem, suggest options and oversee
implementation.
? Communication Facilitator: keeps two-way
communication open by spanning the boundary
between the organization and its environment.
? Problem-Solving Facilitator: works as a
partner with senior management to identify and
solve problems.
Models of Public Relations
It is useful to examine the four public relations models
developed by Jim Grunig to understand the key
concepts of PR and how they are related to each
other. The models are based on the concepts of
communication and research.
? Press Agentry model
? Public information model
? Two-way asymmetric model
The four models are?
Press Agentry Model
? The practitioner holds to a
one-way movement of
information from the
organization to its publics.
? This is the oldest form of
public relations and relies on
persuasion.
? In Grunig?s model, the intention often
is to deceive the receiver on some
level for manipulative purposes.
I
N
F
O
R
M
A
T
I
O
N
Public Information Model
? Like press agentry, this is a one-way
movement of information.
? The intent is to inform rather than press
for promotion and publicity.
? Often used by government, educational
institutions and not-for-profit organizations.
Two-way Asymmetric Model
? Organization uses social science
research methods to persuade in a two-
way exchange of information.
? This includes the use of surveys, interviews
and focus groups.
? This model is more interested in influencing
publics about the company than influencing
the company.
Two-way Symmetric Model
? Organization seeks mutual
understanding and influence with its
publics rather than one-way persuasion.
? The organization and the public adjust to
one another.
New Model of Symmetry
In 1995 a new model of public relations was
developed. This model is known as the
Model of Symmetry as Two-Way
Practice
In this model, the publics and the organization are on
a continuum. PR practitioners use both two-way
symmetrical and two-way asymmetrical models as
needed. The organization and the public seek to
persuade each other as much as possible.
Developing Models of Public
Relations
Two new models have been developed that fall into the
asymmetrical category:
Cultural Interpreter Model: applies to companies that
do business in other countries and need to be cognizant
of the language, culture, customs and political systems of
those countries.
Personal Influence Model: applies to practitioners who
try to develop personal relationships with key individuals
who can then be contacted as needed by the practitioner.
Approaches to Conflict
Resolutions
? Conflict involves an individual or group
actively opposing another?s values or
goals.
Plowman, Briggs, and Huang identified nine types
of conflict resolution strategies and linked
them to the motives of organizations and publics:
? 1.Contention: Involves one party forcing its position
on another.
? 2.Cooperation: Both parties work together to reach
a mutually beneficial solution.
? 3.Accomodation: One party partially yields on its
position and lowers its aspirations.
? 4.Avoidance: One or both parties leave the conflict
either physically or psychologically.
? 5.Unconditional Constructive: The
organization resolves the strategic
interests of both the organization and its
publics.
? 6.Compromise: An alternative agreement
that stands part way between the parties
preferred positions..
? 7.Principled: Both parties hold to higher
ethics that cannot be compromised.
? 8.Win-Win or No Deal: Both parties hold
off on any agreement until they are ready
for the deal to be struck.
? 9.Mediated: Involves use of an outside
disinterested party.
In Summary?
Understanding the theories behind the
behavior of an organization?s publics is
essential for developing strategies and
tactics that can help an organization
achieve its goals. Modern PR
practitioners focus on two-way
communication that values the input of
the publics as much as the persuasive
power of the company.
ASSIGNMENT?-?2?
? Short?Questions
? 1.?What?is?the?meaning?of?theory?
? 2.?Differentiate?between?systems?theory?and?situational?theory.
? 3.?What?concept?is?explained?in?the?Social?Exchange?Theory?
? 4.?State?the?meaning?of?diffusion?theory.
? 5.?What?is?Social?Learning?Theory?
? 6.?What?are?the?different?roles?of?Public?Relations?
? ?
? Ten?Marks?Questions
? 1.?Explain?in?detail?the?theories?of?relationship.
? 2.?Explain?in?detail?the?theories?of?persuasion?and?social?influence.
? 3.?Explain?in?detail?the?theories?of?mass?communication.
? 4.?Explain?briefly?the?public?relations?roles.
? 5,?Enumerate?the?different?public?relations?models.
? 6.?What?are?the?different?approaches?to?Conflict?Resolutions?
?
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This post was last modified on 18 February 2020