FINANCE ? AN INTRODUCTION
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LESSON OUTLINE
Significance
Definition of Finance
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Functions of FinanceTypes of Finance
Business Finance
Direct Finance
Indirect Finance
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Public FinancePrivate Finance
Corporation Finance
Finance in Relation to other
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Allied Disciplines--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you
should be able to
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Understand the significance and
definition of finance
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Know the functions of financeIdentify the different types of
finance
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Describethis
relationship
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between finance with other
allied disciplines
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1
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SignificanceFinance is the life blood of business. Before discussing the nature and scope of
financial management, the meaning of `finance' has to be explained. In fact, the
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term, finance has to be understood clearly as it has different meaning and
interpretation in various context. The time and extent of the availability of
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finance in any organization indicates the health of a concern. Everyorganization, may it be a company, firm, college, school, bank or university
requires finance for running day to day affairs. As every organization previews
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stiff competition, it requires finance not only for survival but also for
strengthening themselves. Finance is said to be the circulatory system of the
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economy body, making possible the required cooperation between theinnumerable units of activity.
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Definition of Finance
According to F.W.Paish, Finance may be defined as the position of money at the
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time it is wanted.In the words of John J. Hampton, the term finance can be defined as the
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management of the flows of money through an organization, whether it will be a
corporation, school, bank or government agency.
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According to Howard and Upton, "finance may be defined as that
administrative area or set of administrative functions in an organization which
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relates with the arrangement of each and credit so that the organization may
have the means to carry out the objectives as satisfactorily as possible.
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In the words of Bonneville and Dewey, Financing consists in the raising,providing, managing of all the money, capital or funds of any kind to be used in
connection with the business.
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As put forth by Hurband and Dockery in his book `Modern Corporation
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Finance', finance is defined as "an organism composed of a myriad of separateenterprise, each working for its own ends but simultaneously making a
contribution to the system as a whole, some force is necessary to bring about
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direction and co-ordination. Something must direct the flow of economic
activity and facilitate its smooth operation. Finance is the agent that produces
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this result".The Encyclopedia Britannica defines finance as "the act of providing the
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means of payment." It is thus the financial aspect of corporate planning which
may be described as the management of money.
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An analysis of the aforesaid definition, makes it clear that finance directs
the flow of economic activity and facilitates the smooth operation. Finance
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provides the required stimulus for continued business operations of all
categories. Finance is essential for expansion, diversification, modernization,
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establishment, of new projects and so on. The financial policy of anyorganization to a greater extent, determines not only its existence, and survival
but also the performance and success of that organization. Finance is required
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for investment, purposes as well as to meet substantial capital expenditure
projects.
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Functions of Finance
According to Paul G. Hasings, "finance" is the management of the monetary
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affairs of a company. It includes determining what has to be paid for and when,raising the money on the best terms available, and devoting the available funds
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to the best uses. Kenneth Midgley and Ronald Burns state: "Financing is the
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process of organising the flow of funds so that a business can carry out itsobjectives in the most efficient manner and meet its obligations as they fall due."
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Finance squeezes the most out of every available rupee. To get the best
out of the available funds is the major task of finance, and the finance manager
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performs this task most effectively if he is to be successful. In the words ofMr.A.L.Kingshott, "Finance is the common denominator for a vast range of
corporate objectives, and the major part of any corporate plan must be expressed
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in financial terms."
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The description of finance may be applied to money managementprovided that the following three objectives are properly noted :
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Many activities associated with finance such as saving, payment of
things, giving or getting credit, do not necessarily require the use of money.
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In the first place, the conduct of international trade has been facilitated.
The development of the pecuniary unit in the various commercial nations has
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given rise to an international denominator of values. The pecuniary unit makes
possible a fairly accurate directing of capital to those parts of the world where it
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will be most productive. Within any given country, the flow of capital from oneregion to another is guided in a similar manner.
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The term `finance' refers to the financial system in a rudimentary or
traditional economy, that is, an economy in which the per capita output is low
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and declining over a period of time. The financial organisation in rudimentaryfinance is characterized by the absence of any financial instruments of the
saving deficit units of their own which they can issue and attract savings. There
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will not be any inducement for higher savings by offering different kinds of
financial assets to suit the varied interests and preferences of the investing
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public. The other characteristic of such a financial system is that there are no
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markets where firms can compete for private savings.Types of Finance
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Business Finance:
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Theterm
`business
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finance'
is
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verycomprehensive. It implies finances of business activities. The term, `business'
can be categorized into three groups: commerce, industry and service. It is a
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process of raising, providing and managing of all the money to be used in
connection with business activities.
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It encompasses finance of sole proprietary organizations, partnership
firms and corporate organizations. No doubt, the aforesaid organizations have
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different characteristics, features, distinct regulations and rules. And financial
problems faced by them vary depending upon the nature of business and scale of
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operations. However, it should be remembered that the same principles offinance are applicable to large and small organizations, proprietary and non-
proprietary organizations.
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According to Guthmann & Dougall, business finance can be broadly
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defined as the activity concerned with planning, raising, controlling andadministering of funds used in the business.
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Business finance deals with a broad spectrum of the financial activities
of a business firm. It refers to the raising and procurement of funds and their
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appropriate utilisation. It includes within its scope commercial finance,industrial finance, proprietary finance corporation finance and even agricultural
finance.
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The subject of business finance is much wider than that of corporation
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finance. However, since corporation finance forms the lion's share in thebusiness activity, it is considered almost inter-changeable with business finance.
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Business finance, apart from the financial environment and strategies of
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financial planning, covers detailed problems of company promotion, growth andpattern. These problems of the corporate sector go a long way in widening the
horizon of business finance.
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The finance manager has to assume the new responsibility of managing
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the total funds committed to total assets and allocating funds to individual assetsin consonance with the overall objectives of the business enterprise.
Direct Finance
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The term 'direct', as applied to the financial organisation, signifies that savings
are effected directly from the saving-surplus units without the intervention of
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financial institutions such as investment companies, insurance companies, unittrusts, and so on.
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Indirect Finance
The term 'indirect finance' refers to the flow of savings from the savers to the
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entrepreneurs through intermediary financial institutions such as investmentcompanies, unit trusts and insurance companies, and so on.
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Finance administers economic activities. The scope of finance is vast and
determined by the financial needs of the business enterprise, which have to be
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identified before any corporate plan is formulated. This eventually means thatfinancial data must be obtained and scrutinised. The main purpose behind such
scrutiny is to determine how to maintain financial stability.
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Public Finance
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It is the study of principles and practices pertaining to acquisition of funds for
meeting the requirements of government bodies and administration of these
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funds by the government.
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6Private Finance
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It is concerned with procuring money for private organization and
management of the money by individuals, voluntary associations and
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corporations. It seeks to analyse the principles and practices of managing one's
own daily affairs. The finance of non-profit organization deals with the
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practices, procedures and problems involved in the financial management ofeducational chartable and religions and the like organizations.
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Corporation Finance:
Corporation finance deals with the financial
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problems of a corporate enterprise. These problems include the financial aspectsof the promotion of new enterprises and their administration during their early
period ; the accounting problems connected with the distinction between capital
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and income, the administrative problems arising out of growth and expansion,
and, finally, the financial' adjustments which are necessary to bolster up to
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rehabilitate a corporation which has run into financial difficulties.The term `corporation finance' includes, apart from the financial
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environment, the different strategies of financial planning. It includes problems
of public deposits, inter-company loans and investments, organised markets
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such as the stock exchange, the capital market, the money market and the billmarket. Corporation finance also covers capital formation and foreign capital
and collaborations.
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Finance in Relation to Other Allied Disciplines:
The finance function
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cannot work effectively unless it draws on the-disciplines which are closelyassociated with it. Management is heavily dependent on accounting for
operating facts. Accounting' has been described by Richard M. Lynch and
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Robert W. Williamson as "the - measurement and communication of financial
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7and economical data. In fact, accounting information relates to the production,
sales, expenses, investments, losses and gains of the business. Accounting has
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three branches namely, financial accounting, cost accounting and management
accounting.
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Relationships between Finance and other DisciplinesPrimary Disciplines
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Finance Decisions
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1. Accou
nting
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Supports
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2. Economics
Investment,
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3. Taxation
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Working capital,
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Other Disciplines
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1. OperationsLeverage
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Research
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Supports
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2. ProductionDividend policy
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Financial Accounting: It is concerned with the preparation of reports whichprovide information to users outside the firm. The most common reports are the
financial statements included in the annual reports of stock-holders and potential
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investors. The main objective of these-reports is to inform stockholders,
creditors and other investors how assets are controlled by a firm. In the light of
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the financial statements and certain other information, the accountant preparesfunds film statement, cash flow statement and budgets.
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A master plan (Budget) of the organization includes and coordinates the
plans of every department in financial terms. According to Guthmann and
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Dougall, "Problems of finance are intimately connected while problems ofpurchasing, production and marketing".
Cost Accounting: It deals primarily with cost data. It is the process of
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classifying, recording, allocating and reporting the various costs incurred in the
operation of an enterprise. It includes a detailed system of control for material,
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labour and overheads. Budgetary control and standard casting are integral part of8
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cost accounting. The purpose of cost accounting is to provide information to themanagement for decision making, planning and control. It facilitates cost
reduction and cost control. It involves reporting of cost data to the management.
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Management Accounting: It refers to accounting for the management. It
provides necessary information to assist the management in the creation of
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policy and in the day to day operations. It enables the management to dischargeall its functions, namely, planning, organizing, staffing, direction and control
efficiently with the help of accounting information. Functions of management
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accounting include all activities connected with collecting, processing,
interpreting and presenting information to the management. According to J.
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Batty, `management accounting' is the term used to describe the accountingmethods, systems and technique which coupled with special knowledge and
ability, assist management in its task of maximizing profits or minimizing
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losses. Management accounting is related to the establishment of cost centres,
preparation of budgets, preparation of cost control accounts and fixing of
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responsibility for different functions.SUMMARY
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Finance is the life blood of business. Before discussing the nature and
scope of financial management, the meaning of `finance' has to be explained. In
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fact, the term, finance has to be understood clearly as it has different meaning
and interpretation in various contexts. The time and extent of the availability of
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finance in any organization indicates the health of a concern. Finance may bedefined as the position of money at the time it is wanted. Financing consists in
the raising, providing, managing of all the money, capital or funds of any kind to
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be used in connection with the business.
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9The term `business finance' is very comprehensive. It implies finances
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of business activities. The term, `business' can be categorized into three groups:
commerce, industry and service. It is a process of raising, providing and
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managing of all the money to be used in connection with business activities. Theterm `corporation finance' includes, apart from the financial environment, the
different strategies of financial planning. It includes problems of public deposits,
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inter-company loans and investments, organised markets such as the stock
exchange, the capital market, the money market and the bill market.
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The finance function cannot work effectively unless it draws on the-
disciplines which are closely associated with it. Management is heavily
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dependent on Accounting, Economics, Taxation, Operations research,
Production and Marketing.
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KEYWORDS
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Finance : It is defined as the position of money at the time it is wanted.Business Finance : According to Guthmann & Dougall, business finance can be
broadly defined as the activity concerned with planning, raising, controlling and
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administering of funds used in the business.
Corporation Finance : The term `corporation finance' includes, apart from the
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financial environment, the different strategies of financial planning. It includesproblems of public deposits, inter-company loans and investments, organised
markets such as the stock exchange, the capital market, the money market and
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the bill market.
Accounting : It relates to the production, sales, expenses, investments, losses
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and gains of the business.Financial Accounting : The most common reports are the financial statements
included in the annual reports of stock-holders and potential investors.
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Cost Accounting : It deals primarily with cost data. It is the process of
classifying, recording, allocating and reporting the various costs incurred in the
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operation of an enterprise. It includes a detailed system of control for material,labour and overheads.
Management Accounting : It refers to accounting for the management. It
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provides necessary information to assist the management in the creation of
policy and in the day to day operations. It enables the management to discharge
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all its functions, namely, planning, organizing, staffing, direction and controlefficiently with the help of accounting information.
Management : Process of attainment of predetermined goals by directing
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activities of a group of persons and employing other resources.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS1.
Explain fully the concept of finance.
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2.
Bring out the importance of finance.
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3.It is often said that financial activities hinge on the money management.
Do you agree with this point of view?
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4.
"Financial accounting is essentially of a stewardship nature." Comment.
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5.What is business finance? Explain its significance.
6.
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How can you classify finance?
7.
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How is finance related to other disciplines?*****
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12LESSON 2
FINANCE FUNCTION
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LESSON OUTLINE
Nature of Finance Function
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Content of Finance FunctionFinance Function - Objectives
Changing Concept of Finance
Scope of Finance Function
Organisation of the
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Finance Function
Meaning of the
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Finance FunctionFinance Function -
A New Perspective
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson, you
should be able to
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Understand
the
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natureof
finance function
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Analyse the content of finance
function
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Know the objectives of financefunction
Understand
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the
changing
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concept of finance.Discuss the scope of the finance
function
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Describe the organization of
finance function
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Know the meaning of controllerand treasure
Understand the new perspective
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of finance function
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13Nature of Finance Function
The finance function is the process of acquiring and utilizing funds of a
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business. Finance functions are related to overall management of an
organization. Finance function is concerned with the policy decisions such as
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like of business, size of firm, type of equipment used, use of debt, liquidityposition. These policy decisions determine the size of the profitability and
riskiness of the business of the firm. Prof. K.M.Upadhyay has outlined the
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nature of finance function as follows:
i)
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In most of the organizations, financial operations are centralized. Thisresults in economies.
ii)
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Finance functions are performed in all business firms, irrespective of their
sizes / legal forms of organization.
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iii) They contribute to the survival and growth of the firm.iv) Finance function is primarily involved with the data analysis for use in
decision making.
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v)
Finance functions are concerned with the basic business activities of a
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firm, in addition to external environmental factors which affect basicbusiness activities, namely, production and marketing.
vi) Finance functions comprise control functions also
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vii) The central focus of finance function is valuation of the firm.
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Content of Finance FunctionsThe areas of responsibility covered by finance functions may be regarded as the
content of finance function. These areas are specific functions of finance.
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Famous authors of financial management have enumerated the contents of
finance function, as outlined, below:
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Name of the Author
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Content of Finance Functions
1)
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Investment Decision
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Financing DecisionDividend Decisions
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2)
Earnest W. Walker
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Financial Planning
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Financial Co-ordination
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Financial Control
3)
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J. Fred Weston and
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Eugene F. Brigham
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Financial Planning and ControlManagement of Working Capital
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Investment in Fixed Assets
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Capital Structure Decisions
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Individual Financing Episodes
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It is clear from the above, that, finance functions can be grouped
as outlined below:
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i)
Financial planning
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ii)Financial control
iii)
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Financing decisions
iv)
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Investment decisionv)
Management of income and dividend decision
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vi)
Incidental functions
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Finance Function ? Objectives
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The objective of finance function is to arrange as much funds for the business asare required from time to time. This function has the following objectives.
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1. Assessing the Financial requirements. The main objective of finance
function is to assess the financial needs of an organization and then finding out
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suitable sources for raising them. The sources should be commensurate with theneeds of the business. If funds are needed for longer periods then long-term
sources like share capital, debentures, term loans may be explored.
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2. Proper Utilisation of Funds : Though raising of funds is important but their
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effective utilisation is more important. The funds should be used in such a waythat maximum benefit is derived from them. The returns from their use should
be more than their cost. It should be ensured that funds do not remain idle at any
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point of time. The funds committed to various operations should be effectively
utilised. Those projects should be preferred which are beneficial to the business.
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3. Increasing Profitability. The planning and control of finance function aims
at increasing profitability of the concern. It is true that money generates money.
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To increase profitability, sufficient funds will have to be invested. Finance
function should be so planned that the concern neither suffers from inadequacy
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of funds nor wastes more funds than required. A proper control should also beexercised so that scarce resources are not frittered away on uneconomical
operations. The cost of acquiring funds also influences profitability of the
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business.
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4. Maximising Value of Firm. Finance function also aims at maximizing the
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value of the firm. It is generally said that a concern's value is linked with itsprofitability.
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The changing concept of finance
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According to Ezra Solomon, the changing concept of finance can be analysedby dividing the entire process into three broad groupings.
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First Approach
This approach just emphasizes only on the liquidity and financing of the
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enterprise.Traditional Approach
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This approach is concerned with raising of funds used in an organization. It
compasses
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a) instruments, institutions and practice through which funds areaugmented.
b) the legal and accounting relationship between a company and its source
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of funds.
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Modern approachThis approach is concerned not only with the raising of funds, but their
administration also. This approach encompasses
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a) determination of the sum total amount of funds to employ in the firm.
b) Allocation of resources efficiently to various assets.
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c) Procuring the best mix of financing ? i.e. the type and amount of
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corporate securities.
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An analysis of the aforesaid approaches unfold that modern approachinvolving an integrated approach to finance has considered not only
determination of total amount of funds but also allocation of resources
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efficiently to various assets of the firm. Thus one can easily decipher that the
concept of finance has undergone a perceptible change.
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This is evident from the views expressed by one of the financial experts,
namely, James C Van Horne and the same are reproduced below:
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Finance concept (function or scope) has changed from a primarily
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descriptive study to one that encompasses regions analysis and normativetheory; from a field that was concerned primarily with the procurement of funds
to one that includes the management of assets, the allocation of capital and the
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valuation of the firm as a whole; and from a field that emphasized external
analysis to the firm to one that stresses decision making within the firm.
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Finance, today, is best characterized as ever changing with new ideas andtechniques. The role of financial manager is considerably different from what it
was a few years ago and from what it will no doubt be in another coming years.
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Academicians and financial mangers must grow to accept the changing
environment and master its challenge.
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Scope of Finance Function
The scope of finance function is very wide. While accounting is concerned with
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the routine type of work, finance function is concerned with financial planning,
policy formulation and control. Earnest W. Walker and William are of the
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opinion that the financial function has always been important in businessmanagement. The financial organiastion depends upon the nature of the
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18
organization ? whether it is a proprietary organsation, a partnership firm or
corporate body. The significance of the finance function depends on the nature
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and size of a business firm. The role of various finance officers must be clearly
defined to avoid conflicts and the overlapping of responsibilities. The
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operational functions of finance include :Financial planning
Deciding the capital structure
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Selection of source of finance
Selection of pattern of investment
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i) Financial Planning. The first task of a financial manager is to estimate short-
term and long-term financial requirements of his business. For this purpose, he
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will prepare a financial plan for present as well as for future. The amount
required for purchasing fixed assets as well as needs of funds for working
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capital will have to be ascertained. The estimations should be based on soundfinancial principles so that neither there are inadequate nor excess funds with the
concern. The inadequacy of funds will adversely affect the day-to-day
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operations of the concern whereas excess funds may tempt a management to
indulge in extravagant spending or speculative activities.
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ii) Deciding Capital Structure. The Capital structure refers to the kind and
proportion of different securities for raising funds. After deciding about the
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quantum of funds required it should be decided which type of securities should
be raised. It may be wise to finance fixed assets through long-term debts. Even if
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gestation period is longer, then share capital may be most suitable. Long-termfunds should be raised. It may be wise to finance fixed assets through long-term
debts. Even here if gestation period is longer, then share capital may be most
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19
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suitable. Long-term funds should be employed to finance working capital also, ifnot wholly then partially. Entirely depending upon overdrafts and cash creditors
for meeting working capital needs may not be suitable. A decision about various
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sources for funds should be linked to the cost of raising funds. If cost of raising
funds is very high then such sources may not be useful for long.
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iii) Selection of Source of Finance. After preparing a capital structure, an
appropriate source of finance is selected. Various sources from which finance
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may be raised, include: share capital, debentures, financial institutions,
commercial banks, public deposits, etc. If finances are needed for short periods
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then banks, public deposits and financial institutions may be appropriate; on theother hand, if long-term finances are required then share capital and debentures
may be useful. If the concern does not want to tie down assets as securities then
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public deposits may be a suitable source. If management does not want to dilute
ownership then debentures should be issued in preference to share.
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iv) Selection of Pattern of Investment. When funds have been procured then adecision about investment pattern is to be taken. The selection of an investment
pattern is related to the use of funds. A decision will have. to be taken as to
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which assets are to be purchased ? The funds will have to be spent first on fixed
assets and then an appropriate portion will be retained for Working Capital. The
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decision-making techniques such as Capital Budgeting, Opportunity CostAnalysis, etc. may be applied in making decisions about capital expenditures.
While spending on various assets, the principles of safety, profitability and
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liquidity should not he ignored. A balance should be struck even in these
principles.
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20
Organization of the Finance Functions
Today, finance function has obtained the status of a science and an art. As
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finance function has far reaching significance in overall management process,
structural organization for further function becomes an outcome of an important
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organization problem. The ultimate responsibility of carrying out the financefunction lies with the top management. However, organization of finance
function differs from company to company depending on their respective
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requirements. In many organizations one can note different layers among the
finance executives such as Assistant Manager (Finance), Deputy Manager
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(Finance) and General Manager (Finance). The designations given to theexecutives are different. They are
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Chief Finance Officer (CFO)
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Vice-President (Finance)Financial Controller
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General Manager (Finance)
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Finance OfficersFinance, being an important portfolio, the finance functions are entrusted
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to top management. The Board of Directors who are at the helm of affairs,
normally constitute a `Finance Committee' to review and formulate financial
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policies. Two more officers, namely `treasurer' and `controller' ? may beappointed under the direct supervision of CFO to assist him/her. In larger
companies with modern management, there may be Vice-President or Director
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of finance, usually with both controller and treasurer. The organization of
finance function is portrayed below:
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21
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Organization of Finance Function--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Board of Directors
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Managing Directors
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Production
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PurchaseFinance
Personnel
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Marketing
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DirectorDirector
Director
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Director
Director
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Treasurer
Controller
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Auditing
Credit
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Planning &Cost and
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Analysis
Budgeting
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inventory--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Pension
Cost
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ProfitAccounting
management
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management
Analysis
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and pay roll--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
It is evident from the above that Board of Directors is the supreme body
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under whose supervision and control Managing Director, Production Director,Personnel Director, Financial Director, Marketing Director perform their
respective duties and functions. Further while auditing credit management,
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retirement benefits and cost control banking, insurance, investment function
under treasurer, planning and budgeting, inventory management, tax
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22
administration, performance evaluation and accounting functions are under the
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supervision of controller.Meaning of Controller and Treasurer
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The terms `controller' and `treasurer' are in fact used in USA. This pattern is not
popular in Indian corporate sector. Practically, the controller / financial
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controller in India carried out the functions of a Chief Accountant or FinanceOfficer of an organization. Financial controller who has been a person of
executive rank does not control the finance, but monitors whether funds so
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augmented are properly utilized. The function of the treasurer of an organization
is to raise funds and manage funds. The treasures functions include forecasting
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the financial requirements, administering the flow of cash, managing credit,flotation of securities, maintaining relations with financial institutions and
protecting funds and securities. The controller's functions include providing
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information to formulate accounting and costing policies, preparation of
financial reports, direction of internal auditing, budgeting, inventory control
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payment of taxes, etc. According to Prof. I.M. Pandey, while the controller'sfunctions concentrate the asset side of the balance sheet, the treasurer's
functions relate to the liability side.
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Finance Function ? A Fresh look
The designation Finance Manager or Director (Finance) is very popular in
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Indian Corporate sector. The key function of any financial manager in India ismanagement of funds. It means given the constraints, he must ensure optimum
utilization of funds. The financial managers have significant involvement in
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injecting financial discipline in corporate management processes. They are
responsible for emphasizing the need for rational use of funds and the necessity
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for monitoring the operations of the firm to achieve expected results. The23
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finance functions of augmenting resources and utilisation of funds, no doubt,
have a significant impact on other functions also. Infact, between finance on one
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side and production, marketing and other functions on the other side, aninseparable relationship exists. The Board of Directors have been bestowed with
the onerous responsibility of reviewing financial procedures, formulation of
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financial policies, selection of right finance personnel with professional
capabilities like Chartered Accountant, Cost Accountant and Company
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Secretaries. The Board of Directors with counsel and direction given by thefinancial manager finalise decisions pertaining to formulation of new projects,
diversification of projects, expansion of undertaking, introduction of new
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products, widening the branch areas, diversification of new product lines. It
should be remembered that the financial controller, in fact, does not control
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finance. For management control and planning, the financial controller develops,uses and interprets information.
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Summary
The finance function is the process of acquiring and utilizing funds of a
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business. Finance functions are related to overall management of anorganization. Finance function is concerned with the policy decisions such as
like of business, size of firm, type of equipment used, use of debt, liquidity
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position. These policy decisions determine the size of the profitability and
riskiness of the business of the firm. The areas of responsibility covered by
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finance functions may be regarded as the content of finance function. Theseareas are specific functions of finance. The main objective of finance function is
to assess the financial needs of an organization and then finding out suitable
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sources for raising them.
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24The funds should be used in such a way that maximum benefit is derived
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from them. Finance function also aims at maximizing the value of the firm. It isgenerally said that a concern's value is linked with its profitability. Finance,
today, is best characterized as ever changing with new ideas and techniques. The
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role of financial manager is considerably different from what it was a few years
ago and from what it will no doubt be in another coming years. Academicians
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and financial mangers must grow to accept the changing environment andmaster its challenge. Finance, being an important portfolio, the finance functions
are entrusted to top management. The Board of Directors who are at the helm of
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affairs, normally constitute a `Finance Committee' to review and formulate
financial policies. Two more officers, namely `treasurer' and `controller' ? may
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be appointed under the direct supervision of CFO to assist him/her. The Boardof Directors have been bestowed with the onerous responsibility of reviewing
financial procedures, formulation of financial policies, selection of right finance
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personnel with professional capabilities like Chartered Accountant, Cost
Accountant and Company Secretaries. The Board of Directors with counsel and
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direction given by the financial manager finalise decisions pertaining toformulation of new projects, diversification of projects, expansion of
undertaking, introduction of new products, widening the branch areas,
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diversification of new product lines.
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25
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Keywords
Finance Function : The finance function is the process of acquiring and
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utilizing funds of a business.Content of finance function - The areas of responsibility covered by finance
functions may be regarded as the content of finance function.
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Controller ? He is concerned with the management and control of firm's assets.
Treasurer ? He is concerned with managing the firm's funds and safeguarding
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assets.Review Questions
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1) What is finance function?
2) State the objectives of finance function.
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3) Explain the significance of finance function.4) Analyse the various approaches to finance function.
5) Explain the role of CFO in financial management.
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6) Discuss the support extended by the Board of Directors in managing
finance.
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7) Explain the scope of finance function.8) Elucidate the changing facet of finance function.
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*****
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26
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LESSON 3FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT ? NATURE AND SCOPE
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LESSON OUTLINE
Financial Management -
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SignificanceFinancial Management -
Definition
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Evaluation of Financial
Management
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Nature of FinancialManagement
Financial Management ? Key
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Areas
Financial manager?Functions
Financial Management -
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As science or art
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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After reading this lesson, youshould be able to
Understand the significance of
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financial managementKnow the definition of financial
management
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Details
the
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evaluationof
Financial management
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Analyse the nature of financial
management
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Identify the key areas offinancial management
Enumerate the functions of
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financial manager
Understand
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howfinancial
management is considered both
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an art and science27
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Financial Management ? Significance
Financial management has undergone fundamental changes as regards its scope
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and coverage. Financial management is the application of planning and controlto the finance function. It helps in profit planning, measuring costs, controlling
inventories, accounts receivables. It also helps in monitoring the effective
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deployment of funds in fixed assets and in working capital. It aims at ensuring
that adequate cash is on hand to meet the required current and capital
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expenditure. It facilitates ensuring that significant capital is procured at theminimum cost to maintain adequate cash on hand to meet any exigencies that
may arise in the course of business. Financial management helps in ascertaining
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and managing not only current requirements but also future needs of an
organization.
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It ensures that funds are available at the right time and procurement offunds does not interfere with the right of management / exercising
control over the affairs of the company.
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It influences the profitability / return on investment of a firm.
It influences cost of capital. Efficient fund managers endeavour to locate
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less cost source so as to enhance profitability of organization.It affects the liquidity position of firms.
It enhances market value of the firm through efficient and effective
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financial management.
Financial management is very much required for the survival, growth,
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expansion and diversification of business.It is required to ensure purposeful resource allocation.
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28
Financial Management ? Definition
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According to Weston and Brigham, financial management is an area of financialdecision making, harmonizing individual motives and enterprise goals.
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In the words of Phillippatus, financial management is concerned with the
managerial decisions that result in the acquisition and financing of long-term
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and short-term credits for the firm. As such it deals with the situations thatrequire selection of specific assets / combination of assets, the selection of
specific liability / combination of liabilities as well as the problem of size and
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growth of an enterprise. The analysis of these decisions is based on the expected
inflows and outflows of funds and their effects upon managerial objectives.
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Evolution of Financial Management
Finance, as capital, was part of the economics discipline for a long time. So,
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financial management until the beginning of the 20th century was not
considered as a separate entity and was very much a part of economics.
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In the 1920s, liquidity management and raising of capital assumed
importance. The book, `FINANCIAL POLICY OF CORPORATIONS' written
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by Arthur Stone Dewing in 1920 was a scholarly text on financing and liquidity
management, i.e., cash management and raising of capital in 1920s.
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In the 1930s there was the Great Depression, i.e., all round price decline,
business failures and declining business. This forced the business to be
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extremely concerned with solvency, survival, reorganisation and so on.
Financial Management emphasized on solvency management and on debt-equity
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proportions. Besides external control on businesses became more pronounced.Till early 1950s financial management was concerned with maintaining
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the financial chastity of the business. Conservatism, investor/lendor related
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29protective covenants/information processing, issue management, etc. were the
prime concerns. It was an outsider-looking-in function.
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From the middle of 1950s financial management turned into an insider-
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looking-in function. That is, the emphasis shifted to utilisation of funds fromraising of funds. So, choice of investment, capital investment appraisals, etc.,
assumed importance. Objective criteria for commitment of funds in individual
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assets were evolved.
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Towards the close of the 1950s Modigliani and Miller even argued thatsources of capital were irrelevant and only the investment decisions were
relevant. Such was the total turn in the emphasis of financial management.
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In the 1960s portfolio management of assets gained importance. In the
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selection of investment opportunities portfolio approach was adopted, certaincombinations of assets give more overall return given the risk or give a certain
return for a reduced risk. So, selection of such combination of investments
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gained eminence.
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In the 1970s the capital asset pricing model (CAPM), arbitrage pricingmodel (APM), option pricing model (OPM), etc., were developed - all
concerned with how to choose financial assets. In the 1980s further advances in
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financial management were found. Conjunction of personal taxation with
corporate taxation, financial signalling, efficient market hypothesis, etc., was
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some newer dimensions of corporate financial decision paradigm. FurtherMerger and Acquisition (M&A) became an important corporate strategy.
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The 1960s, saw the era of financial globalization. Educational
globalization is the order of the day. Capital moved West to East, North to South
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and so on. So, global financial management, global investment management,foreign exchange risk management, etc., become more important topics.
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30
In late 1990s and 2000s, corporate governance got preeminence and
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financial disclosure and related norms are being great concerns of financial
management. The dawn of 21st Century is heralding a new era of financial
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management with cyber support. The developments till mid 1950s are brandedas classical financial management. This dealt with cash management, cash flow
management, raising capital, debt-equity norms, issue management, solvency
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management and the like. The developments since mid - 1950s and upto 1980s,
are branded as modern financial management. The emphasis is on asset
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management, portfolio approach, capital asset pricing model, financialsignalling, efficient market hypothesis and so on. The developments since the
1990s may be called post modern financial management with great degree of
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global financial integration net supported finances and so on.
Nature of Financial Management
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Financial management is applicable to every type of organization, irrespectiveof the size, kind or nature. Every organization aims to utilize its resources in a
best possible and profitable way.
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i)
Financial Management is an integral part of overall management.
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Financial considerations are involved in all business decisions.Acquisition, maintenance, removal or replacement of assets,
employee compensation, sources and costs of different capital,
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production, marketing, finance and personnel decision, almost all
decisions for that matter have financial implications. Therefore,
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financial management is pervasive throughout the organisation.ii)
The central focus of financial management is valuation of the firm.
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Financial decisions are directed at increasing/maximization/
optimizing the value of the institution. Weston and Brigham depict
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the above orientation in the exhibit given below:31
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Orientation of Financial Management
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Policy Decisions
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Risk
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1. Line of activities
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2. Mode of entry
Value of Institute
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3. Size of operation
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4. Assets mix
Return
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` 5. Capital mix
6. Liquidity
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7. Solvency--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
iii)
Financial management essentially involves risk-return trade-off.
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Decisions on investment involve choosing of types of assets whichgenerate returns accompanied by risks. Generally higher the risk
returns might be higher and vice versa. So, the financial manager has
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to decide the level of risk the firm can assume and satisfy with the
accompanying return. Similarly, cheaper sources of capital have
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other disadvantages. So to avail the benefit of the low cost funds, thefirm has to put up with certain risks, so, risk-return trade-off is there
throughout.
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iv)
Financial management affects the survival, growth and vitality of the
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institution. Finance is said to be the life blood of institutions. Theamount, type, sources, conditions and cost of finance squarely
influence the functioning of the institution.
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v)
Finance functions, i.e., investment, raising of capital, distribution of
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profit, are performed in all firms - business or non-business, big orsmall, proprietary or corporate undertakings. Yes, financial
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32
management is a concern of every concern including educational
institutions.
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vi)
Financial management is a sub-system of the institutional system
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which has other subsystems like academic activities, research wing,etc., In systems arrangement financial sub-system is to be well-
coordinated with others and other sub-systems well matched with the
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financial sub-system.
vii)
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Financial management of an institution is influenced by the externallegal and economic environment. The legal constraints on using a
particular type of funds or on investing in a particular type of
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activity, etc., affect financial decisions of the institution. Financial
management is, therefore, highly influenced/constrained by external
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environment.viii)
Financial management is related to other disciplines like accounting,
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economics, taxation, operations research, mathematics, statistics etc.,
It draws heavily from these disciplines.
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ix)There are some procedural finance functions - like record keeping,
credit appraisal and collection, inventory replenishment and issue,
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etc., These are routinized and are normally delegated to bottom level
management executives.
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x)The nature of finance function is influenced by the special
characteristic of the business. In a predominantly technology oriented
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institutions like CSIR, CECRI, it is the R & D functions which get
more dominance, while in a university or college the different
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courses offered and research which get more priority and so on.--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
33
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Financial Management ? Key AreasThe key areas of financial management are discussed in the following
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paragraphs.
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(i) Estimating the Capital requirements of the concern. The FinancialManager should exercise maximum care in estimating the financial requirement
of his firm. To do this most effectively, he will have to use long-range planning
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techniques. This is because, every business enterprise requires funds not only for
long-term purposes for investment in fixed assets, but also for short term so as to
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have sufficient working capital. He can do his job properly if he can preparebudgets of various activities for estimating the financial requirements of his
enterprise. Carelessness in this regard is sure to result in either deficiency or
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surplus of funds. If his concern is suffering because of insufficient capital, it
cannot successfully meet its commitments in time, whereas if it has acquired
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excess capital, the task of managing such excess capital may not only prove verycostly but also tempt the management to spend extravagantly.
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(ii) Determining the Capital Structure of the Enterprise. The Capital
Structure of an enterprise refers to the kind and proportion of different
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securities. The Financial Manager can decide the kind and proportion of varioussources of capital only after the requirement of Capital Funds has been decided.
The decisions regarding an ideal mix of equity and debt as well as short-term
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and long-term debt ratio will have to be taken in the light of the cost of raising
finance from various sources, the period for which the funds are required and so
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on. Care should be taken to raise sufficient long-term capital in order to financethe fixed assets as well as the extension programme of the enterprise in such a
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34
wise manner as to strike an ideal balance between the own funds and the loan
funds of the enterprise.
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(iii) Finalising the choice as to the sources of finance. The capital structure
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finalised by the management decides the final choice between the varioussources of finance. The important sources are share-holders, debenture-holders,
banks and other financial institutions, public deposits and so on. The final choice
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actually depends upon a careful evaluation of the costs and other conditions
involved in these sources. For instance, although public deposits carry higher
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rate of interest than on debentures, certain enterprises prefer them to debenturesas they do not involve the creation of any charge on any of the company's assets.
Likewise, companies that are not willing to dilute ownership, may prefer other
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sources instead of investors in its share capital.
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(iv) Deciding the pattern of investment of funds. The Financial Manager mustprudently invest the funds procured, in various assets in such a judicious manner
as to optimise the return on investment without jeopardising the long-term
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survival of the enterprise. Two important techniques-- (i) Capital Budgeting;
and (ii) Opportunity Cost Analysis--can guide him in finalising the investment
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of long-term funds by helping him in making a careful assessment of variousalternatives. A portion of the long-term funds of the enterprise should be
earmarked for investment in the company's working capital also. He can take
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proper decisions regarding the investment of funds only when he succeeds in
striking an ideal balance between the conflicting principles of safety,
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profitability and liquidity. He should not attach all the importance only to thecanon of profitability. This is particularly because of the fact that the company's
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35
solvency will be in jeopardy, in case major portion of its funds are locked up in
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highly profitable but totally unsafe projects. .(v) Distribution of Surplus judiciously. The Financial Manager should decide
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the extent of the surplus that is to be retained for ploughing back and the extent
of the surplus to be distributed as dividend to shareholders. Since decisions
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pertaining to disposal of surplus constitute a very important area of FinancialManagement, he must carefully evaluate such influencing factors as--(a) the
trend of earnings of the company; (A) the trend of the market price of its shares;
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(c) the extent of funds required for meeting the self-financing needs of the
company; (d) the future prospects; (e) the cash flow position, etc.
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(vi) Efficient Management of cash. Cash is absolutely necessary for
maintaining enough liquidity. The Company requires cash to--(a) pay off
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creditors; (b) buy stock of materials; (c) make payments to labourers; and (d)
meet routine expenses. It is the responsibility of the Financial Manager to make
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the necessary arrangements to ensure that all the departments of the Enterpriseget the required amount of cash in time for promoting a smooth flow of all
operations. Short-age of cash on any particular occasion is sure to damage the
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credit- worthiness of the enterprise. At the same time, it is not advisable to keep
idle cash also. Idle cash should be invested in near-cash assets that are capable
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of being converted into cash quickly without any loss during emergencies. Theexact requirements of cash during various periods can be assessed by the
Financial Manager by preparing a cash-flow statement in advance.
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36
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Finance Manager ? FunctionsFinance manager is an integral part of corporate management of an
organization. With his profession experience, expertise knowledge and
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competence, he has to play a key role in optimal utilization of financial
resources of the organization. With the growth in the size of the organization,
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degree of specialization of finance function increases. In large undertakings, thefinance manager is a top management executive who participants in various
decision making functions. He has to update his knowledge with regard to
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Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), Foreign portfolio investment, mergers,
amalgamations acquisitions, and corporate restructuring, performance
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management, risk management corporate governance, investor relations,working capital management, derivative trading practices, investor education
and investor protection etc.
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1) Forecasting of Cash Flow. This is necessary for the successful day to
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day operations of the business so that it can discharge its obligations asand when they rise. In fact, it involves matching of cash inflows against
outflows and the manager must forecast the sources and timing of
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inflows from customers and use them to pay the liability.
2) Raising Funds: the Financial Manager has to plan for mobilising funds
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from different sources so that the requisite amount of funds are madeavailable to the business enterprise to meet its requirements for short
term, medium term and long term.
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3) Managing the Flow of Internal Funds: Here the Manager has to keep a
track of the surplus in various bank accounts of the organisation and
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ensure that they are properly utilised to meet the requirements of the37
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business. This will ensure that liquidity position of the company is
maintained intact with the minimum amount of external borrowings.
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4) To Facilitate Cost Control: The Financial Manager is generally the firstperson to recognise when the costs for the supplies or production
processes are exceeding the standard costs/budgeted figures.
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Consequently, he can make recommendations to the top management for
controlling the costs.
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5) To Facilitate Pricing of Product, Product Lines and Services: TheFinancial Manager can supply important information about cost changes
and cost at varying levels of production and the profit margins needed to
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carry on the business successfully. In fact, financial manager provides
tools of analysis of information in pricing decisions and contribute to the
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formulation of pricing policies jointly with the marketing manager.6) Forecasting Profits: The Financial manager is usually responsible for
collecting the relevant data to make forecasts of profit levels in future.
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7) Measuring Required Return: The acceptance or rejection of an
investment proposal depends on whether the expected return from the
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proposed investment is equal to or more than the required return. Aninvestment project is accepted if the expected return is equal or more
than the required return. Determination of required rate of return is the
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responsibility of the financial manager and is a part of the financing
decision.
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8) Managing Assets: The function of asset management focuses on thedecision-making role of the financial manager. Finance personnel meet
with other officers of the firm and participate in making decisions
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affecting the current and future utilization of the firm's resources. As an
example, managers may discuss the total amount of assets needed by the
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38
firm to carry out its operations. They will determine the composition or a
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mix of assets that will help the firm best achieve its goals. They willidentify ways to use existing assets more effectively and reduce waste
and unwarranted expenses.
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The decision-making role crosses liquidity and profitability lines.
Converting the idle equipment into cash improves liquidity. Reducing
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costs improves profitability.9) Managing Funds: In the management of funds, the financial manager
acts as a specialised staff officer to the Chief Executive of the company.
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The manager is responsible for having sufficient funds for the firm to
conduct its business and to pay its bills. Money must be located to
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finance receivables and inventories, 10 make arrangements for thepurchase of assets, and to identify the sources of long-term financing.
Cash must be available to pay dividends declared by the board of
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directors. The management of funds has therefore, both liquidity and
profitability aspects.
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Financial Management as Science or Art
Financial management is both a science and an art. Its nature is nearer to applied
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sciences as it envisages use of classified and tested knowledge as a help in
practical affairs and solving business.
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Theory of financial management is based on certain systematic
principles, some of which can be tested in mathematical equations like the law
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of physics and chemistry. Financial management contains a much larger body of
rules or tendencies that hold true in genera! and on the average. The use of
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computers, operations research, statistical techniques and econometric modelsfind wide application in financial management as tools for solving corporate
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39
financial problems like budgeting, choice of investments, acquisition or mergers
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etc. This takes the financial management nearer to treatment as a subject ofscience.
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Most practical problems of finance have no hard and fast answers that
can be worked out mathematically or programmed on a computer. They must be
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solved by judgment, intuition and the "feel" of experience. Thus, despite itsfrequent acceptance as an applied science, finance remains largely an art.
Because, according to George A. Christy and Feyton Foster Roden (Finance:
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Environment and Decisions) knowledge of facts, principles and concepts is
necessary for making decisions but personal involvement of the manager
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through his intuitive capacities and power of judgment becomes essential. As theapplication of human judgement and skills is also required for effective financial
management, financial management is also an art.
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In the entire study of financial management whether it is related to
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investment decisions, financing decisions i.e. deciding about the sources offinancing, or dividend decisions, there is a mixture of science as well as art.
When techniques for analytical purposes are used, it is science and when
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choice is application of the results it is an art.
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SummaryFinancial management is the application of planning and control to the finance
function. It helps in profit planning, measuring costs, controlling inventories,
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accounts receivables. It also helps in monitoring the effective deployment of
funds in fixed assets and in working capital. It aims at ensuring that adequate
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cash is on hand to meet the required current and capital expenditure. It facilitatesensuring that significant capital is procured at the minimum cost to maintain
adequate cash on hand to meet any exigencies that may arise in the course of
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40
business. Financial management is applicable to every type of organization,
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irrespective of the size, kind or nature. Every organization aims to utilize its
resources in a best possible and profitable way. Financial management
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essentially involves risk-return trade-off. Decisions on investment involvechoosing of types of assets which generate returns accompanied by risks.
Generally higher the risk returns might be higher and vice versa. So, the
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financial manager has to decide the level of risk the firm can assume and satisfy
with the accompanying return. Financial management affects the survival,
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growth and vitality of the institution. Financial management is related to otherdisciplines like accounting, economics, taxation, operations research,
mathematics, statistics etc., It draws heavily from these disciplines. Financial
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management is both a science and an art. Its nature is nearer to applied sciences
as it envisages use of classified and tested knowledge as a help in practical
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affairs and solving business. In the entire study of financial managementwhether it is related to investment decisions, financing decisions i.e. deciding
about the sources of financing, or dividend decisions, there is a mixture of
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science as well as art. When techniques for analytical purposes are used, it is
science and when choice is application of the results it is an art.
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41Keywords
Financial Management : Financial management is the application of planning
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and control to the finance function. It helps in profit planning, measuring costs,
controlling inventories, accounts receivables.
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Planning : Determining future course of action.Art of Management : Application of science in the attainment of practical
results.
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Science of Management : A body of knowledge consisting of concepts,
principles and techniques organized around managerial functions.
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Review Questions
1) What is financial management?
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2) Define financial management. Explain its significance.
3) Explain the various areas of financial management.
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4) Analyse the nature of financial management.5) Describe the evolution of financial management.
6) Financial management ? is it a science or an art.
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7) What are key areas of financial management.
8) Explain the role of financial manager in the current scenario.
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*****
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42LESSON ? 4
FINANCIAL GOALS
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LESSON OUTLINE
Objectives / goals ? Meaning
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Significance goals ofFinancial Management
Goals of Financial
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Management
Profit Maximisation
Arguments in favour of
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Profit Maximisation
Criticisms leveled against
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Profit MaximisationWealth maximisation
Profit maximization Vs
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Wealth MaximisationLEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson, you
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should be able toUnderstand the meaning of
objectives / goals
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Knowthe
significance
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of
financial goals
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Spell out the different goals offinancial management
To understand the significance
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of profit maximization
Put-forth arguments in favour
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of profit maximizationPoint out criticisms
Understand the significance of
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wealth maximizationDistinguish between PM &
WM
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43Objectives / Goals ? Meaning
Objectives or goals are the end results towards which activities are aimed.
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Formulation and definition of objectives of an organization is the basic
requirement of effective management. According to George R. Terry, "a
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managerial objective is the intended goal which prescribes definite safe andsuggests direction to efforts of a manager". Further objectives can either he short
term or long-term. As business activities involve allocation of source resources
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among alternative uses, expected return must be balanced against its opportunity
cost. It is a fait accompli to observe firms wishing to pursue several goals, of
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which profit maximization is of primary objective. Every firm or an organizationwish to maximize profits, while at the same time minimizes expenses.
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Significance
Finance guides and regulates investment decisions and expenditure of
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administers economic activities. The scope of finance is vast and determined bythe financial requirements of the business organization. The objective provides a
frame work for optimum financial decision ? making. In other words, to ensure
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optimum decisions the goals of financial management must be made more clear.
The financial management functions covers decision making in three inter-
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related areas, namely investment, financing and dividend policy. The financialmanager has to take these decisions with reference to the objectives of the firm.
Financial management provides a framework for selecting a proper course of
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action and deciding a viable commercial strategy. The main objective of a
business is to maximize the owners economic welfare. The goals of financial
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management of a corporate enterprise succinctly brought out by AlfredRappaport which is reproduced below: "In a market based economy which
recognize the rights of private property, the only social responsibility of business
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44
is to create value and do so legally and with integrity. It is a profound error to
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view increases in a company's value as a concern just for its shareholders.
Enlightened managers and public officials recognizer that increase in stock
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priced reflect improvement in competitiveness ? an issue which affects everyonewho has a stake in the company or economy".
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Goals of Financial Management
Goals act as motivators, serve as the standards for measuring performance, help
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in coordination of multiplicity of tasks, facilitate in identifying interdepartmental relationships and so on. The goals can be classified as official
goals, operative goals and operational goals.
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The official goals are the general objective of any organization. They include
mechanism of ROI and market value of the firms.
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The operative goals indicate the actual efforts taken by an organization toimplement various plans, policies and norms.
The operational goals are more directed, quantitative and verifiable. In fine, it
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can be inferred that the official, operative and operational goals are set with a
pyramidal shape, the official goals at the helm of affairs (concerned with top
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level executives) operative goals at the middle level and operational goals at thelower level.
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Following are the other objectives of financial management.
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a) To build up reserves for growth and expansionb) To ensure a fair return to shareholders
c) To ensure maximum operational efficiency by efficient and effective
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utilization of finances.
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The financial decisions can rationally be made only when the businessenterprise has certain well thought out objectives. It is argued that the
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45
achievement of central goal of maximisation of the owner's economic welfare
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depends upon the adoption of two criteria, viz., i) profit maximisation; and (ii)wealth maximisation.
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Profit Maximisation : The term `profit maximization' implies generation of
largest amount of profits over the time period being analysed, secondary to Prof.
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Peter Drucker, business profits play a functional role in three different ways. Inthe words of Peter Drucker.
i)
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profits indicate the effectiveness of business profits
ii)
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they provide the premium to cover costs of staying in businessiii)
they ensure supply of future capital.
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Profits are source of funds from which organizations are able to defray
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certain expenses like replacement, obsolescence, marketing etc.Maximization of profits for a long term is desirable and appreciable. The
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tendency to maximize profits in the short run may invite innumerable problems
to the organization concerned. In fact, maximization of profits in the short run
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may give an impression of being exploitative. The extent of uncertainty inbusiness increases the appreciation of proprietor / partner / company and hence
many prefer short-run profit maximisation to long ?run profit maximisaiton.
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The underlying basic of profit maximization is efficiency. It is assumed
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that profit maximization causes the efficient allocation of resources under thecompetitive impact conditions and profit is regarded as the most appropriate
measure of a firm's performance.
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Arguments in favour of profit maximization
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Arguments in favour of profit maximization as the objective of business areenumerated below:
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46
1. Profits are the major source of finance for the growth and development
of its business.
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2. Profitability serves as a barometer for measuring efficiency and
economic prosperity of a business entity.
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3. Profits are required to promote socio-economic welfare.Criticisms levelled against profit maximization
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However, profit maximization objective has been criticized on innumerable
grounds. Under the changed economic and corporate environment, profit-
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maximisation is regarded as unrealistic, difficult, unappropriate and socially notmuch liked goal for business organizations. Profit maximization as an objective
of financial management has been considered inadequate and rejected because
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of the following drawbacks.
1) There are several goals towards which a business firm / organization
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should direct themselves profit ? maximization is one of the goals of theorganization and not the only goal.
2) Maintenance of firm's share in the market, development and growth of
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the firm, expansion and diversification are other goals of business
concern.
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3) Rendering social responsibility4) Enhancing the shareholders' wealth maximization.
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As Solomon opines, profit maximisation has been rejected as an
operational criterion for maximising the owner's economic welfare as it cannot
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help us in ranking alternative courses of action in terms of their economicefficiency. This is because--(i) it is vague; (ii) it ignores the timing of returns;
(iii) it ignores risk.
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47
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Profit maximisation is considered as an important goal in financial
decision-making in an organisation. It ensures that firm utilizes its available
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resources most efficiently under conditions of competitive markets. Profit
maximisation as corporate goal is criticised by scholars mainly on following
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grounds:(i)
It is vague conceptually.
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(ii)
It ignores timing of returns.
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(iii)It ignores the risk factor.
(iv)
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it may tempt to make such decisions which may in the long run prove
disastrous.
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(v)Its emphasis is generally on short run projects.
(vi)
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It may cause decreasing share prices.
(vii)
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The profit is only one of the many objectives and variables that afirm considers.
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Wealth Maximisation
Wealth Maximisation refers to all the efforts put in for maximizing the net
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present value (i.e. wealth) of any particular course of action which is just thedifference between the gross present value of its benefits and the amount of
investment required to achieve such benefits.
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Wealth maximisation principle is also consistent with the objective
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or'maximising the economic welfare of the proprietors of the firm. This, in turn,calls for an all out bid to maximise the market value of shares of that firm which
are held by its owners. As Van Horne aptly remarks, the market price of the
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shares of a company (firm) serves as a performance index or report card of its
progress. It indicates how well management is doing on behalf of its share-
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holders.48
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The wealth maximization objective serves the interests of suppliers of
loaned capital, employees, management and society. This objective not only
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serves shareholders interests by increasing the value of holding but also ensures
security to lenders also. According to wealth maximization objective, the
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primary objective of any business is to maximize share holders wealth. Itimplies that maximizing the net present value of a course of action to
shareholders.
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According to Solomon, net, present ? value or wealth of a course of
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action is the difference between the present value of its benefits and the presentvalue of its costs. The objective of wealth maximization is an appropriate and
operationally feasible criteria to chose among the alternative financial actions. It
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provides an unambiguous measure of what financial management should seek to
maximize in making investment and financing decisions on behalf of
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shareholders. However, while pursuing the objective of wealth maximization, allefforts must be employed for maximizing the current present value of any
particular course of action. It implies that every financial decision should be
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based on cost ? benefit analysis. The shareholders, who obtained great benefits,
would not like a change in the management. The share's market price serves as a
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performance index. It also reflects the efficiency and efficacy of themanagement.
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The Necessity of a Valuation Model. Porterneld has shown how the
attainment of the objective of maximising the market value of the firm's shares
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(i.e. wealth maximisation) requires an appropriate Valuation model to assess thevalue of the shares of the firm in Question. The Financial Manager should
realise or atleast assume the extent of influence various factors are capable of
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wielding upon the market price of his company's shares. If not he may, not be
able to maximise the value of such shares.
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49
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Financial management is concerned with mobilization of financial
resources and their effective utilization towards achieving the organization its
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goals. Its main objective is to use funds in such a way that the earnings aremaximized. Financial management provides a framework for selecting a proper
course of action and deciding a viable commercial strategy. A business firm has
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a number of objectives. Peter Driven has outlined the possible objectives of a
firm as follows.
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Market standingInnovation
Productivity
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Economical use of physical and financial resources
Increasing the profitability
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Improved performanceDevelopment of worker's performance and co-operatives
Public responsibility
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The wealth maximizing criterion is based on the concept of cash flows
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generated by the decision rather than according profit which is the basis of themeasurement of benefits in the case of profit maximization criterion. Measuring
benefits in terms of cash flows avoids the ambiguity associated with accounting
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profits.
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Presently, maximisation of present value (or wealth) of a course of actionis considered appropriate operationally flexible goal for financial decision-
making in an organisation. The net present value or wealth can be defined more
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explicitly in the following way:
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A1A2
A3
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An
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AtW = ---------- + ---------- + ------------ + ...+----------- - Co = ----------------- - Co
(1 + K1) (1 + K1) (1 + K1) (1 + K1) (1 + K)t
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50
Where A1 and A2 represent the stream of benefits expected to occur if a course
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of action is adopted. Co is the cost of that action and K is the appropriatediscount rate, and W is the Net present worth or wealth which is the difference
between the present worth or wealth of the stream of benefits and the initial cost.
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The management of an organisation maximises the present value not
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only for shareholders but for al! including employees, customers, suppliers andcommunity at large. This goal for the maximum present value is generally
justified on the following grounds:
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(i)
It is consistent with the object of maximising owners economic
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welfare.(ii)
It focuses on the long run picture.
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(iii)
It considers risk.
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(iv)It recognises the value of regular dividend payments.
(v)
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It takes into account time value of money.
(vi)
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It maintains market price of its shares(vii)
It seeks growth is sales and earnings.
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Maximizing the shareholders' economic welfare is equivalent to
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maximizing the utility of their consumption every time. With their wealthmaximized, shareholders can afford their cash flows in such a way as to
optimize their consumption. From the shareholders point of view, the wealth
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created by a company through the actions is reflected in the market value of the
company's shares.
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51
Profit Maximisation versus Shareholder Wealth Maximization
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Profit maximization is basically a single-period or, at the most, a short-term
goal. It is usually interpreted to mean the maximization of profits within a given
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period of time. A firm may maximize its short-term profits at the expense of itslong-term profitability and still realize this goal. In contrast, shareholder wealth
maximization is a long-term goal shareholders are interested in future as well as
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present profits. Wealth maximization is generally preferred because it considers
(1) wealth for the long term, (2) risk or uncertainty. (3) the timing of returns,
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and (4) the "shareholders' return. The following table provides a summary of theadvantages and disadvantages of these two often conflicting goals.
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Table 1.1 ? Profit Maximisation versus shareholder wealth maximization
Goal
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Objective
Advantages
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DisadvantagesProfit
Large
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amount 1. Easy to calculate 1. Emphasizes the
Maximisation
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of profitsprofits
short-term
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2.
Easy
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to 2. Ignores risk ordetermine the link uncertainty
between
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financial 3. Ignores the
decisions
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and timing of returnsprofits
4. Requires
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immediate
resources
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ShareholderHighest market 1. Emphasizes the 1. Offers no clear
wealth
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value
of long term
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relationshipmaximization
common stock
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2. Recognises risk between financial
or uncertainty
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decisions and stock3. Recognises the price.
timing of returns
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2. Can lead to
4. Considers' return management
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anxiety andfrustration
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Summary
Objectives or goals are the end results towards which activities are aimed.
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Formulation and definition of objectives of an organization is the basicrequirement of effective management. Finance guides and regulates investment
decisions and expenditure of administers economic activities. The scope of
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finance is vast and determined by the financial requirements of the business
organization. The objective provides a frame work for optimum financial
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decision ? making. In other words, to ensure optimum decisions the goals offinancial management must be made more clear. The financial management
functions covers decision making in three inter-related areas, namely
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investment, financing and dividend policy. The financial manager has to take
these decisions with reference to the objectives of the firm. The financial
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decisions can rationally be made only when the business enterprise has certainwell thought out objectives. It is argued that the achievement of central goal of
maximisation of the owner's economic welfare depends upon the adoption of
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two criteria, viz., i) profit maximisation; and (ii) wealth maximisation. The term
`profit maximization' implies generation of largest amount of profits over the
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time period. Wealth Maximisation refers to all the efforts put in for maximizingthe net present value (i.e. wealth) of any particular course of action which is just
the difference between the gross present value of its benefits and the amount of
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investment required to achieve such benefits. The other objectives of financial
management include a) To build up reserves for growth and expansion, b) To
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ensure a fair return to shareholders and c) To ensure maximum operationalefficiency by efficient and effective utilization of finances.
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Key words
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Optimal Decisions : The decision which relate to physical inputs, outputs andother variables (i.e. non-financial variables).
Profit Maximisation : The term `profit maximization' implies generation of
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largest amount of profits over the time period.
Wealth Maximisation : It refers to all the efforts put in for maximizing the net
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present value (i.e. wealth) of any particular course of action which is just thedifference between the gross present value of its benefits and the amount of
investment required to achieve such benefits.
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Review Questions1) Explain the objectives or goals of financial management.
2) Explain the concept of wealth in the context of wealth maximization
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objective.
3) "The wealth maximization objective provides an operationally
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appropriate decision criterion" ? Analyse the statement.4) In what respect is the objective of wealth maximization superior to the
profit maximization objective?
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5) Give the arguments for profit maximization as an objective of a firm.
6) What are the arguments levelled against profit maximization objective?
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7) What are the other objectives of financial management?*****
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55LESSON ? 5
FINANCIAL DECISIONS
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LESSON OUTLINEIntroduction
Financial decision ? types
Investment decisions
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Financing decisionDividend decision
Liquidity
Relationship of financial
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DecisionsFactors influencing
Financial decisions
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson, you
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should be able toTo understand the various types
of financial decisions
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To describe the relationship offinancial decisions
To identify the various factors
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influencing financial decisions.
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56
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IntroductionFinance comprises of blend of knowledge of credit, securities, financial related
legislations, financial instruments, financial markets and financial system. As
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finance is a scarce resource, it must be systematically raised form the cheapest
source of funds and must be judiciously utilized for the development and growth
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of the organization. Charles Gertenberg visualizes the significance of scientificarrangement of records with the help of which the inflow and outflow of funds
can be efficiently managed, stocks and bonds can be efficiently marketed and
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the efficacy of the organization can be greatly improved.
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The financial manager in his new role, is concerned with the efficientallocation of funds. The firm's investment and financing decisions are
continuous. The financial manager according to Ezra Solomon must find a
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rationale for answering the following three questions.
1) How large should an enterprise be and how fast should it grow?
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2) In what form should it hold its assets?3) How should the funds required be raised?
It is therefore clear from the above discussion that firms take different
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financial decisions continuously in the normal course of business. Liquidity,
solvency, profitability and flexibility optimization goals and risk, would lead to
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reaping of wealth maximization goal.Financial Decisions ? Types
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Financial decisions refer to decisions concerning financial matters of a business
firm. There are many kinds of financial management decisions that the firm
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makers in pursuit of maximising shareholder's wealth, viz., kind of assets to be57
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acquired, pattern of capitalisation, distribution of firm's income etc. We can
classify these decisions into three major groups :
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1. Investment decisions2. Financing decision.
3. Dividend decisions.
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4. Liquidity decisions.
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1. Investment Decisions / Capital Budgeting DecisionsInvestment Decision relates to the determination of total amount of assets to be
held in the firm, the composition of these assets and the business risk
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complexities of the firm as perceived by the investors. It is the most important
financial decision. Since funds involve cost and are available in a limited
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quantity, its proper utilization is very necessary to achieve the goal of wealthmaximasation.
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The investment decisions can be classified under two broad groups; (i)
long-term investment decision and (ii) Short-term, in vestment decision. The
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long-term investment decision is referred to as the capital budgeting and theshort-term investment decision as working capital management.
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Capital budgeting is the process of making investment decisions in
capital expenditure. These are expenditures, the benefits of which are expected
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to be received over a long period of time exceeding one year. The financemanager has to assess the profitability of various projects before committing the
funds. The investment proposals should be evaluated in terms of expected
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profitability, costs involved and the risks associated with the projects. The
investment decision is important not only for the setting up of new units but also
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for the expansion of present units, replacement of permanent assets, research58
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and development project costs, and reallocation of funds, in case, investmentsmade earlier, do not fetch result as anticipated earlier.
2. Financing Decisions / Capital Structure Decisions
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Once the firm has taken the investment decision and committed itself to new
investment, it must decide the best means of financing these commitments.
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Since, firms regularly make new investments, the needs for financing andfinancial decisions are on going, Hence, a firm will be continuously planning for
new financial needs. The financing decision is not only concerned with how best
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to finance new asset, but also concerned with the best overall mix of financing
for the firm.
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A finance manager has to select such sources of funds which will make
optimum capital structure. The important thing to be decided here is the
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proportion of various sources in the overall capital mix of the firm. The debt-
equity ratio should be fixed in such a way that it helps in maximising the
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profitability of the concern. The raising of more debts will involve fixed interestliability and dependence upon outsiders. It may help in increasing the return on
equity but will also enhance the risk. The raising of funds through equity will
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bring permanent funds to the business but the shareholders will expect higher
rates of earnings. The financial manager has to strike a balance between anxious
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sources so that the overall profitability of the concern improves. If the capitalstructure is able to minimise the risk and raise the profitability then the market
prices of the shares will go up maximising the wealth of shareholders.
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3. Dividend Decision
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The third major financial decision relates to the disbursement of profits back toinvestors who supplied capital to the firm. The term dividend refers to that part
of profits of a company which is distributed by it among its shareholders. It is
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59
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the reward of shareholders for investments made by them in the share capital ofthe company. The dividend decision is concerned with the quantum of profits to
be distributed among shareholders. A decision has to be taken whether ail the
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profits are to be distributed, to retain all the profits in business or to keep a part
of profits in the business and distribute others among shareholders. The higher
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rate of dividend may raise the market price of shares and thus, maximise thewealth of shareholders. The firm should also consider the question of dividend
stability, stock dividend (bonus shares) and cash dividend.
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4. Liquidity Decisions
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Liquidity and profitability are closely related. Obviously, liquidity andprofitability goals conflict in most of the decisions. The finance manager always
perceives / faces the task of balancing liquidity and profitability. The term
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liquidity implies the ability of the firm to meet bills and the firm's cash reserves
to meet emergencies. Whereas the profitability means the ability of the firm to
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obtain highest returns within the funds available. As said earlier, striking aproper balance between liquidity and profitability is an ardous task. If a finance
manager wants to meet all the bills, then profitability will decline similarly
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where he wants to invest funds in short term securities he may not be having
adequate funds to pay-off its creditors. Lack of liquidity in extreme situations
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can lead to the firm's insolvency.Risk ? Return Trade Off
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Further where the company is desirous of mobilizing funds from outside
sources, it is required to pay interest at fixed period. Hence liquidity is reduced.
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A successful finance manager has to ensure acceleration of cash receipts (cashinflows in to business) and deceleration of cash (cash outflows) from the firm.
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60
Thus forecasting cash flows and managing cash flows are one of the important
functions a finance manager that will lead to liquidity. The finance manager is
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required to enhance his professionalism and intelligence to ensure that return is
optimized.
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Return = Risk-free rate + Risk premium
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Risk free rate is a compensation for time and risk premium for risk. Higher the
risk of an action, higher will be the risk premium leading to higher required
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return on that action. This levelling of return and risk is known as risk returntrade off. At this level, the market value of the company's shares should be the
maximum. The diagram given below spells out the interrelationship between
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market value, financial decisions and risk-return trade off.
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61
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Interrelationship between market value, financial decisions andrisk-return trade off
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Finance
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Manager--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Maximization of
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Share Value--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Financial
Decision
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Funds
Financing
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InvestmentDividend
requirement
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Decision
decision
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decisiondecision
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ReturnRisk
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Value of Firm ? Risk Return
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The finance manager tries to achieve the proper balance between, the basicconsiderations of 'risk and return' associated with various financial management
decisions to maximise the market, value, of the firm.
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It is well known that "higher the return other things being equal, higher
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the market value; higher the risk, other things being equal, lower the market62
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value'. In fact, risk and return go together. It is quite evident from the aforesaiddiscussion that financial decisions have a great impact on all other business
activities. The modern finance manager has to facilitate making these decisions
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in the most rational way. The decisions have to be made in such a way that the
funds of the firms / organizations are used optimally. The financial reporting
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system must be designed to provide timely and accurate picture of the firm'sactivities.
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Relationship of Financial Decisions
The financial manager is concerned with the optimum utilization of funds and
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their procurement in a manner that the risk, cost and control considerations areproperly balanced in a given situation. Irrespective of nature of decisions, i.e.
investment decisions, financing or capital structure decisions / dividend
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decisions all these decisions are interdependent. All these decisions are inter-
related. All are intended to maximize the wealth of the shareholders. An
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efficient financial manager has to ensure optimal decision by evaluating each ofthe decision involved in relation to its effect on shareholders wealth.
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Factors Influencing Financial Decisions
There are innumerable factors that influence the financial decision. They are
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classified as external factors and internal factors.External factors
Capital structure
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Capital market and money market
State of economy
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Requirements of investorsGovernment policy
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63
Taxation policy
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Financial institutions / banks lending policyInternal factors
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Nature of business
Age of the firm
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Size of the businessExtent and trend of earnings
Liquidity position
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Working capital requirements
Composition of assets
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Nature of risk and expected return.Summary
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Finance comprises of blend of knowledge of credit, securities, financial related
legislations, financial instruments, financial markets and financial system. As
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finance is a scarce resource, it must be systematically raised form the cheapestsource of funds and must be judiciously utilized for the development and growth
of the organization. Financial decisions refer to decisions concerning financial
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matters of a business firm. There are many kinds of financial management
decisions that the firm makers in pursuit of maximising shareholder's wealth,
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
viz., kind of assets to be acquired, pattern of capitalisation, distribution of firm'sincome etc. We can classify these decisions into three major groups : 1)
Investment decisions, 2) Financing decision, 3) Dividend decisions, and 4)
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Liquidity decisions.
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Investment Decision relates to the determination of total amount
of assets to be held in the firm, the composition of these assets and the business
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64
risk complexities of the firm as perceived by the investors. The financing
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decision is not only concerned with how best to finance new asset, but also
concerned with the best overall mix of financing for the firm. A finance manager
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has to select such sources of funds which will make optimum capital structure.The dividend decision is concerned with the quantum of profits to be distributed
among shareholders. A decision has to be taken whether ail the profits are to be
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distributed, to retain all the profits in business or to keep a part of profits in the
business and distribute others among shareholders. The higher rate of dividend
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may raise the market price of shares and thus, maximise the wealth ofshareholders. The term liquidity implies the ability of the firm to meet bills and
the firm's cash reserves to meet emergencies. Whereas the profitability means
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the ability of the firm to obtain highest returns within the funds available. As
said earlier, striking a proper balance between liquidity and profitability is an
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ardous task. The finance manager tries to achieve the proper balance between,the basic considerations of 'risk and return' associated with various financial
management decisions to maximise the market, value, of the firm. The financial
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manager is concerned with the optimum utilization of funds and their
procurement in a manner that the risk, cost and control considerations are
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properly balanced in a given situation.--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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65Keywords
Financial decisions: It refer to decisions concerning financial matters of a
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business firm.
Risk Free Rate : It is a compensation for time and risk premium for risk.
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Risk ? Return Trade Off: Levelling of risk and return is known as risk ? returntrade off.
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Review Questions
1)
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What is meant by financial decision?2)
Explain investment decision.
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3)
Explain liquidity Vs. Profitability?
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4)Discuss the significance of various financial decisions.
5)
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What is meant by liquidity decision?
6)
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Explain risk-return trade off.*****
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66
UNIT ? 2
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LESSON ? I
CAPITAL BUDGETING ? A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
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LESSON OUTLINE
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Meaning of Capital Budgeting
Capital expenditure
Definition
Need for capital investment
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Capital budgeting-significanceCapital Budgeting process
Factors influencing
Investment decisions
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Kinds of Capital Budgeting
Decisions
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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After reading this lesson you
should be able to
Understand the meaning of
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Capital budgeting
Know about capital expenditure
Understand the need for capital
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investment
Point out the significance of
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capital budgetingDescribe the capital budgeting
process
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Spell out the factors influencing
investment decisions
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Describe the kinds of capitalbudgeting decisions
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67
Capital budgeting decisions are of paramount importance in financial decisions,
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because efficient allocation of capital resources is one of the most crucialdecisions of financial management. Capital budgeting is budgeting for capital
projects. It is significant because it deals with right kind of evaluation of
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projects. The exercise involves ascertaining / estimating cash inflows and
outflows, matching the cash inflows with the outflows appropriately and
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evaluation of desirability of the project. It is a managerial technique of meetingcapital expenditure with the overall objectives of the firm. Capital budgeting
means planning for capital assets. It is a complex process as it involves decisions
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relating to the investment of current funds for the benefit to be achieved in
future. The overall objective of capital budgeting is to maximize the profitability
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of the firm / the return on investment.Capital Expenditure
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A capital expenditure is an expenditure incurred for acquiring or improving the
fixed assets, the benefits of which are expected to be received over a number of
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years in future. The following are some of the examples of capital expenditure.1) Cost of acquisition of permanent assets such as land & buildings, plant &
machinery, goodwill etc.
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2) Cost of addition, expansion, improvement or alteration in the fixed assets.
3) Cost of replacement of permanent assets.
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4) Research and development project cost etc.Capital expenditure involves non-flexible long term commitment of funds.
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Capital Budgeting ? Definition
"Capital budgeting" has been formally defined as follows.
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1) "Capital budgeting is long-term planning for making and financing
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proposed capital outlay".- Charles T. Horngreen
2) "The capital budgeting generally refers to acquiring inputs with long-
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term returns".
- Richards & Greenlaw
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3) "Capital budgeting involves the planning of expenditure for assets, thereturns from which will be realized in future time periods".
- Milton H. Spencer
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The long-term activities are those activities that influence firmsoperation beyond the one year period. The basic features of capital budgeting
decisions are:
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There is an investment in long term activities
Current funds are exchanged for future benefits
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The future benefits will be available to the firm over series of years.Need For Capital Investment
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The factors that give rise to the need for capital investments are:
Expansion
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DiversificationObsolescence
Wear and tear of old equipment
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Productivity improvement
Learning ? curve effect
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Product improvement69
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Replacement and modernization
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The firm's value will increase in investments that are profitable. Theyadd to the shareholders' wealth. The investment will add to the shareholders'
wealth if it yields benefits, in excess of the minimum benefits as per the
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opportunity cost of capital.
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It is clear from the above discussion what capital investment proposals
involve
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a) Longer gestation period
b) Substantial capital outlay
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c) Technological considerationsd) Irreversible decisions
e) Environmental issues
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Capital Budgeting ? Significance
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1. Capital budgeting involves capital rationing. This is the available funds thathave to be allocated to competing projects in order of project potential.
Normally the individuality of project poses the problem of capital rationing due
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to the fact that required funds and available funds may not be the same.
2. Capital budget becomes a control device when it is employed to control
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expenditure. Because manned outlays are limits to actual expenditure, theconcern has to investigate the variation in order to keep expenditure under
control.
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3. A firm contemplating a major capital expenditure programme may need to
arrange funds many years in advance to be sure of having the funds when
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required.70
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4. Capital budgeting provides useful tool with the help of which themanagement can reach prudent investment decision.
5. Capital budgeting is significant because it deals with right mind of evaluation
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of projects. A good project must not be rejected and a bad project must not be
selected. Capital projects need to be thoroughly evaluated as to costs and
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benefits.6. Capital projects involve investment in physical assets such as land, building
plant, machinery etc. for manufacturing a product as against financial
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investments which involve investment in financial assets like shares, bonds or
mutual funds. The benefits from the projects last for few to many years.
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7. Capital projects involve huge outlay and last for years.8. Capital budgeting thus involves the making of decisions to earmark funds for
investment in long term assets yielding considerable benefits in future, based on
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a careful evaluation of the prospective profitability / utility of such proposed
new investment.
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Capital Budgeting ProcessThe important steps involved in the capital budgeting process are (1) Project
generation, (2) Project evaluation, (3) project selection and (4) project
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execution.
1. Project Generation. Investment proposals of various types may
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originate at different levels within a firm. Investment proposals may beeither proposals to add new product to the product line or proposals to
expand capacity in existing product lines. Secondly, proposals designed
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to reduce costs in the output of existing products without changing the
scale of operations. The investment proposals of any type can originate
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at any level. In a dynamic and progressive firm there is a continuousflow of profitable investment proposals.
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2. Project evaluation. Project evaluation involves two steps: i) estimation
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of benefits and costs and ii) selection of an appropriate criterion to judgethe desirability of the projects. The evaluation of projects should be done
by an impartial group. The criterion selected must be consistent with the
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firm's objective of maximizing its market value.
3. Project Selection. There is no uniform selection procedure for
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investment proposals. Since capital budgeting decisions are of crucialimportance, the final approval of the projects should rest on top
management.
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4. Project Execution. After the final selection of investment proposals,
funds are earmarked for capital expenditures. Funds for the purpose of
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project execution should be spent in accordance with appropriationsmade in the capital budget.
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Factors Influencing Investment Decisions
The main factors which, influence capital investment are :
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1. Technological change. In modem times, one often finds fast obsolescence oftechnology. New technology, which is relatively more efficient, takes the place
of old technology; the latter getting downgraded to some less important
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applications. However, in taking a decision of this type, the management has to
consider the cost of new equipment vis-a-vis the productive efficiencies of the
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new as well as the old equipments. However, while evaluating the cost of newequipment, the management should not take into, account its full accounting
cost (as the equipment lasts for years) but its incremental cost. Also, the cost of
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new equipment is often partly offset by the salvage value of the replaced
equipment.
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2. Competitors 'strategy. Many a time an investment is taken to maintain the
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competitive strength of the firm; If the competitors are installing new equipmentto expand output or to improve quality of their products, the firm under
consideration will have no alternative but to follow suit, else it will perish. It is,
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therefore, often found that the competitors' strategy regarding capital investment
plays a very significant role in forcing capital decisions on a firm.
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3. Demand forecast. The long-run forecast of demand is one of the determinantsof investment decision. If it is found that there is a market potential for the
product in the long run, the dynamic firm will have to take decisions for capital
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expansion.
4. Type of management. Whether capital investment would be encouraged or
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not depends, to a large extent, on the viewpoint of the management. If themanagement is modern and progressive in its outlook, the innovations will be
encouraged, whereas a conservative management discourages innovation and
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fresh investments.
5. Fiscal policy. Various tax policies of the government (like tax concessions on
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investment income, rebate on new investment, method of allowing depreciationdeduction allowance) also have favourable or unfavourable influence on capital
investment.
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6. Cashflows. Every firm makes a cash flow budget. Its analysis influences
capital investment decisions. With its help the firm plans the funds for acquiring
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the capital asset. The budget also shows the timing of availability of cash flowsfor alternative investment proposals, thereby helping the management in
selecting the desired project.
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7. Return expected from the investment. In most of the cases, investment
decisions are made in anticipation of increased return in future. While evaluating
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73
investment proposals, it is therefore essential for the firm to estimate future
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returns or benefits accruing from the investment.
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Kinds of Capital Budgeting DecisionsThe overall objective of capital budgeting is to maximise the profitability of a
firm or the return on investment. This objective can be achieved either by
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increasing the revenues or by reducing costs. Thus, capital budgeting decisions
can be broadly classified into two categories:
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(a) those which increase revenue, and(b) those which reduce costs
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The first category of capital budgeting decisions are expected to increase
revenue of the firm through expansion of the production capacity or size of
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operations by adding a new product line. The second category increases theearnings of the firm by reducing costs and includes decisions relating to
replacement of obsolete, outmoded or worn out assets. In such cases, a firm has
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to decide whether to continue with the same asset or replace it. Such a decision
is taken by the firm by evaluating the benefit from replacement of the asset in
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the form of reduction in operating costs and the cost/cash outlay needed forreplacement of the asset. Both categories of above decisions involve investment
in fixed assets but the basic diffemce between the two decisions lies in the fact
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that increasing revenue investment decisions are subject to more uncertainty as
compared to cost reducing investment decisions.
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Further, in view of the investment proposals under consideration, capital
budgeting decisions may also be classified as.
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(i)
Accept / Reject Decisions
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(ii)Mutually Exclusive Project Decisions
(iii)
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Capital Rationing Decisions.
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74(i) Accept / Reject Decisions; Accept / reject decisions relate to independent
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project which do not compete with one another. Such decisions are generallytaken on the basis of minimum return on investment. All those proposals which
yield a rate of return higher than the minimum required rate of return or the cost
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of capital are accepted and the rest are rejected. If the proposal is accepted the
firm makes investment in it, and if it is rejected the firm does not invest in the
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same.(ii) Mutually Exclusive project Decisions; Such decisions relate to proposals
which compete with one another in such a way that acceptance of one
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automatically excludes the acceptance of the other. Thus, one of the proposals is
selected at the cost of the other. For example, a company may have the option of
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buying a new machine, or a second hand machine, or taking an old machine onhire or selecting a machine out of more than one brands available in the market.
In such a case, the company may select one best alternative out of the various
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options by adopting some suitable technique or method of capital budgeting.
Once one alternative is selected the others are automatically rejected.
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iii) Capital Rationing Decisions: A firm may have several profitableinvestment proposals but only limited funds to invest. In such a case,
these various investments compete for limited funds and, thus, the firm has to
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ration them. The firm effects the combination of proposals that will yield the
greatest profitability by ranking them in descending order of their profitability.
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Summary
Capital budgeting is budgeting for capital projects. It is significant because it
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deals with right kind of evaluation of projects. The exercise involves
ascertaining / estimating cash inflows and outflows, matching the cash inflows
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75
with the outflows appropriately and evaluation of desirability of the project. It is
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a managerial technique of meeting capital expenditure with the overall
objectives of the firm. Capital budgeting means planning for capital assets.
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Capital budgeting involves capital rationing. This is the available funds
that have to be allocated to competing projects in order of project potential.
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Normally the individuality of project poses the problem of capital rationing due
to the fact that required funds and available funds may not be the same. Capital
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budget becomes a control device when it is employed to control expenditure.Because manned outlays are limits to actual expenditure, the concern has to
investigate the variation in order to keep expenditure under control. Capital
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budgeting provides useful tool with the help of which the management can reach
prudent investment decision. Capital projects involve huge outlay and last for
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years. The Important factors influencing investment decisions includeTechnological change, competitors' strategy, demand forecast, type of
management, fiscal policy, cash flows and return expected from the investment.
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The overall objective of capital budgeting is to maximise the profitability
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of a firm or the return on investment. This objective can be achieved either byincreasing the revenues or by reducing costs. Thus, capital budgeting decisions
can be broadly classified into two categories: a) those which increase revenue,
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and b) those which reduce costs.
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Further, in view of the investment proposals under consideration, capitalbudgeting decisions may also be classified as. i) Accept / Reject Decisions, ii)
Mutually Exclusive Project Decisions and iii) Capital Rationing Decisions.
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76
Keywords
Capital budgeting. It is decision-making process concerned with "whether or
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not (i) the firm should invest funds in an attempt to make profit?" and (ii) how to
choose among competing projects.
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Risk. Refers to a situation in which there are several possible outcomes, eachoutcome occurring with a probability that is known to the decision-maker.
Capital Expenditure. A capital expenditure is an expenditure incurred for
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acquiring or improving the fixed assets, the benefits of which are expected to be
received over a number of years in future.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS1)
What is capital budgeting?
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2)
Explain the significance of budgeting.
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3)What are capital revisions?
4)
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Explain the nature and features of capital budgeting.
5)
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What are the various kinds of capital budgeting decisions?6)
What is meant by capital budgeting process?
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7)
Analyse the importance steps involved in capital budgeting.
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8)Describe the Factors Influencing Investment Decisions
9)
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Explain need for investment decisions.
10) Explain the process involved in capital budgeting.
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*****77
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LESSON ? 2
EVALUATION OF CAPITAL PROJECTS
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LESSON OUTLINE
Investment evaluation criteria
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Features required byInvestment evaluation criteria
Techniques of investment
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Appraisal
Discounted cash flow (DCF)
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CriteriaNon-discounted cash flow
Criteria
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Comparison between NPV
& IRR
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Similarities of results underNPV and IRR
Problems & key
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you
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should be able toUnderstand
the
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Investment
evaluation criteria
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To spell out the featuresrequired
by
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Investment
evaluation criteria
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To analyse Techniques ofinvestment Appraisal Methods
To make a comparison between
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NPV and IRR
To identify the similarities of
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results under NPV and IRR--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
78
Capital budgeting is a managerial technique of planning capital expenditure in
consonance with the overall objectives of the firm. Capital budgeting is a
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double-edged tool that analyses investment opportunities and cost of capital
simultaneously while evaluating worth whileness of a project. A wide range of
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criteria has been suggested to judge the worth whileness of investment projects.Capital projects need to be thoroughly evaluated as to costs and benefits. The
costs of capital projects include the initial investment at the inception of the
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project. Initial investment made in land, building, plant and machinery,
equipment, furniture, fixtures etc. generally gives the installed capacity.
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Investment Evaluation Criteria
The capital budgeting process begins with assembling of investment proposals
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of different departments of a firm. The departmental head will have innumerable
alternative projects available to meet his requirements. He has to select the best
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alternative from among the conflicting proposals. This selection is made afterestimating return on the projects and comparing the same with the cost of
capital. Investment proposal which gives the highest net marginal return will be
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chosen.
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Following are the steps involved in the evaluation of an investment:1) Estimation of cash flows
2) Estimation of the required rate of return
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3) Application of a decision rule for making the choice
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Features required by Investment Evaluation CriteriaA sound appraisal technique should be used to measure the economic worth of
an investment project. Porterfield, J.T.S. in his book, Investment Decisions and
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79
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Capital Costs, has outlined some of the features that must be had by a soundinvestment evaluation criteria.
? It should consider all cash flows to determine the true profitability of the
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project.
? It should provide for an objective and unambiguous way of separating good
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projects from bad projects.? It should help ranking of projects according to their true profitability.
? It should recognise the fact that bigger cash flows are preferable to smaller
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ones and early cash flows are preferable to later ones.
? It should help to choose among mutually exclusive projects that project which
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maximises the shareholders' wealth.? It should be a criterion which is applicable to any conceivable investment
project independent of others.
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Techniques of Investment Appraisal
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Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) Criteria? Net present value (NPV)
? Internal rate of return (IRR)
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? Profitability index (PI)
Non-discounted Cash Flow Criteria
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? Pay-back period? Discounted payback period
? Accounting rate of return (ARR).
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Non-discounted Cash Flow Criteria
Payback period Method : This method is popularly known as pay off, pay-out,
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recoupment period method also. It gives the number of years in which the totalinvestment in a particular capital expenditure pays back itself. This method is
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80
based on the principle that every capital expenditure pays itself back over a
number of years. It means that it generates income -within a certain period.
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When the total earnings (or net cash-inflow] from investment equals the total
outlay, that period is the payback period of the capital investment. An
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investment project is adopted so long as it pays for itself within a specifiedperiod of time -- say 5 years or less. This standard of recoupment period is
settled by the management taking into account a number of considerations.
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While there is a comparison between two or more projects, the lesser the
number of payback years, the project will be acceptable.
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The formula for the payback period calculation is simple. First of all,
net-cash-inflow is determined. Then we divide the initial cost (or any value we
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wish to recover) by the annual cash-inflows and the resulting quotient is the
payback period. As per formula :
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Original Investment
Payback period = -----------------------------------
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Annual Cash-inflowsIf the annual cash-inflows are uneven, then the calculation of payback
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period takes a cumulative form. We accumulate the annual cash-inflows till the
recovery of investment and as soon as this amount is recovered, it is the
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expected number of payback period years. An asset or capital expenditure outlaythat pays back itself early comparatively is to be preferred.
Payback Method ? Merits: The payback period method for choosing among
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alternative projects is very popular among corporate managers and according to
Quirin even among Soviet planners who call it as the recoupment period
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method. In U.S.A and U.K. this method is widely accepted to discuss theprofitability of foreign investment. Following are some of the advantages of pay
back method:
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81
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(1) It is easy to understand, compute and communicate to others. Its quickcomputation makes it a favourite among executive who prefer snap answers.
(2) It gives importance to the speedy recovery of investment in capital assets. So
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it is useful technique in industries where technical developments are in full
swing necessitating the replacements at an early date.
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(3) It is an adequate measure for firms with very profitable internal investmentopportunities, whose sources of funds are limited by internal low availability
and external high costs.
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(4) It is useful for approximating the value of risky investments whose rate of
capital wastage (economic depreciation and obsolescence rate) is hard to predict.
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Since the payback period method weights only return heavily and ignores distantreturns it contains a built-in hedge against the possibility of limited economic
life.
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(5) When the payback period is set at a large "number of years and incomes
streams are uniform each year, the payback criterion is a good approximation to
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the reciprocal of the internal rate of discount.Payback Method ? Demerits : This method has its own limitations and
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disadvantages despite its simplicity and rapidity. Here are a number of demerits
and disadvantages claimed by its opponents:-
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(1) It treats each asset individually in isolation with the other assets, while assetsin practice can not be treated in isolation.
(2) The method is delicate and rigid. A slight change in the division of labour
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and cost of maintenance will affect the earnings and such may also affect the
payback period.
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(3) It overplays the importance of liquidity as a goal of the capital expendituredecisions. While no firm can ignore its liquidity requirements but there are more
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82
direct and less costly means of safeguarding liquidity levels. The overlooking of
profitability and over stressing the liquidity of funds can in no way be justified.
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(4) It ignores capital wastage and economic life by restricting consideration to
the projects' gross earnings.
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(5) It ignores the earning beyond the payback period while in many cases theseearnings are substantial. This is true particularly in respect of research and
welfare projects.
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(6) It overlooks the cost of capital which is the main basis of sound investment
decisions.
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In perspective, the universality of the payback criterion as a reliable
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index of profitability is questionable. It violates the first principle of rational
investor behaviour-namely that large returns are preferred to smaller ones.
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However, it can be applied in assessing the profitability of short and mediumterm capital expenditure projects.
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Accounting Rate of Return Method - It is also an important method. This
method is known as Accounting Rate of Return Method / Financial Statement
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Method/ Unadjusted Rate of Return Method also. According to this method,capital projects are ranked in order of earnings. Projects which yield the highest
earnings are selected and others are ruled out. The return on investment method
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can be expressed in several ways a follows:
(i) Average Rate of Return Method - Under this method we calculate the
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average annual profit and then we divide it by the total outlay of capital project.Thus, this method establishes the ratio between the average annual profits and
total outlay of the projects.
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As per formula,
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83Average Annual Profits
Rate of Return = ------------------------------------ x 100
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Outlay of the Project
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Thus, the average rate of return method considers whole earnings overthe entire economic life of an asset. Higher the percentage of return, the project
will be acceptable.
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(ii) Earnings per unit of Money Invested - As per this method, we find out the
total net earnings and then divide it by the total investment. This gives us the
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average rate of return per unit of amount (i.e. per rupee) invested in the project.As per formula:
Total Earnings
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Earnings per unit of investment = ------------------------------------------------
Total Outlay of the Project
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The higher the earnings per unit, the project deserves to be selected.
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(iii) Return on Average Amount of Investment Method - Under this method
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the percentage return on average amount of investment is calculated. Tocalculate the average investment the outlay of the projects is divided by two. As
per formula :
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Unrecovered Capital at the beginning +
Unrecouped capital at the end
Average Investment = ---------------------------------------------------------------
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2
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Initial investment + scrap value
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Or
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= ------------------------------------------------
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2
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InvestmentOr
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= -------------------------
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2--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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Average Annual Net Income (Savings)
Rate of Return
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= ----------------------------------------------------------- x 100--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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Average Investment
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Here:
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Average Annual Net Income =Average Annual Cash- inflow - Depreciation
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Thus, we see that the rate of return approach can be applied in various
ways. But, however, in our opinion the third approach is more reasonable and
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consistent.Accounting Rate of Return Method ? Merits
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This approach has the following merits of its own :
(1) Like payback method it is also simple and easy to understand.
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(2) It takes into consideration the total earnings from the project during its entireeconomic life.
(3) This approach gives due weight to the profitability of the project.
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(4) In investment with extremely long lives, the simple rate of return will be
fairly close to the true rate of return. It is often used by financial analysis to
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measure current performance of a firm.Accounting Rate of Return Method ? Demerits
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(1) One apparent disadvantage of this approach is that its results by different
methods are inconsistent.
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85
(2) It is simply an averaging technique which does not take into account the
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various impacts of external factors on over-all profits of the firm.
(3) This method also ignores the time factor which is very crucial in business
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decision.(4) This method does not determine the fair rate of return on investments. It is
left to the discretion of the management.
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Discounted Cashflows Techniques
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Another method of computing expected rates of return is the present valuemethod. The method is popularly known as Discounted Cashflow Method also.
This method involves calculating the present value of the cash benefits
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discounted at a rate equal to the firm's cost of capital. In other words, the
"present value of an investment is the maximum amount a firm could pay for the
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opportunity of making the investment without being financially worse off."The financial executive compares the present values with the cost of the
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proposal. If the present value is greater than the net investment, the proposal
should be accepted. Conversely, if the present value is smaller than the net
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investment, the return is less than the cost of financing. Making the investmentin this case will cause a financial loss to the firm.
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There are four methods to judge the profitability of different proposals
on the basis of this technique
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(i) Net Present Value Method - This method is also known as Excess PresentValue or Net Gain Method. To implement this approach, we simply find the
present value of the expected net cash inflows of an investment discounted at the
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cost of capital and subtract from it the initial cost outlay of the project. If the net
present value is positive, the project should be accepted : if negative, it should
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be rejected.86
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NPV = Total Present value of cash inflows ? Net investmentIf the two projects are mutually exclusive the one with higher net present value
should be chosen. The following example will illustrate the process:
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Assumed that the cost of capital after taxes of a firm is 6%. Assume
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further, that the net cash-inflow (after taxes) on a Rs. 5,000 investment areforecasted as being Rs. 2,800 per annum for 2 years. The present value of this
stream of net cash-inflow discounted at 6% comes to Rs. 5,272 (1,813
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xRs.2800).
Therefore, the present value of the cash inflow
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=Rs. 5,272
Less present value of net investment
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=
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Rs. 5,000Net Present value
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Rs. 272(ii) Internal Rate of Return Method - This method is popularly known as time
adjusted rate of return method/discounted rate of return method also. The
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internal rate of return is defined as the interest rate that equate the present value
of expected future receipts to the cost of the investment outlay. This internal rate
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of return is found by trial and error. First we compute the present value of thecash-flows from an investment, using an arbitrarily elected interest rate. Then
we compare the present value so obtained with the investment cost. If the
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present value is higher than the cost figure, we try a higher rate of interest and
go through the procedure again. Conversely, if the present value is lower
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than the cost, lower the interest rate and repeat the process. The interest rate thatbrings about this equality is defined as the internal rate of return. This rate of
return is compared to the cost of capital and the project having higher difference,
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if they are mutually exclusive, is adopted and other one is rejected. As the
determination of internal rate of return involves a number of attempts to make
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the present value of earnings equal to the investment, this approach is also calledthe Trial and Error Method,
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
87
(iii) Profitability Index Method - One major disadvantage of the present value
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
method is that it is not easy to rank projects on the basis of net present valueparticularly when the cost of projects differ significantly. To compare such
projects the present value profitability index is prepared. The index establishes
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
relationship between cash-inflows and the amount of investment as per formula
given below:
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
NPV
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
GPV
V.Index = ---------------- x 100 or
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
-------------------- x 100
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
InvestmentInvestment
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
For example, the profitability index of the Rs. 5,000 investment
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
discussed in Net Present Value Method above would be :272
5272
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
------- x 100 = 5.44 or
-------- x 100 = 105.44
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
3000--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
5000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
The higher profitability index, the more desirable is the investment.Thus, this index provides a ready compatibility of investment having various
magnitudes. By computing profitability indices for various projects, the
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
financial manager can rank them in order of their respective rates of
profitability.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
(iv) Terminal Value Method - This approach separates the timing of thecash-inflows and outflows more distinctly. Behind this approach is the
assumption that each cash-inflow is re-invested in another assets at the certain
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
rate of return from the moment it is received until the termination of the
project. Then the present value of the total compounded sum is calculated and
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
it is compared with the initialcash-outflow. The decision rule is that if thepresent value of the sum total of the compounded re-invested cash-inflows is
greater than the present value of cash-outflows, the proposed project is
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
88
accepted otherwise not. The firm would be different if both the values are
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
equal.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
This method has a number of advantages. It incorporates the advantageof re-investment of cash-inflows by compounding and then discounting it.
Further, it is best suited to cash budgeting requirements. The major practical
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
problem of this method lies in projecting the future rates of interest at which
the intermediate cash inflows received will be re-invested.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Discounted Cashflow Techniques ? Merits
(1) This method takes into account the entire economic life of an investment
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
and income therefrom. It gives the rate of return offered by a new project.
(2) It gives due weight to time factor of financing. In the words of Charles
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Horngreen "Because the discounted cash-flow method explicity and routinelyweights the time value of money, it is the best method to use for long-range
decisions.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
(3) It permits direct comparison of the projected returns on investments with the
cost of borrowing money which is not possible in other methods.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
(4) It makes allowance for differences in the time at which investment generatetheir income.
(5) This approach by recognising the time factor makes sufficient provision for
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
uncertainty and risk. It offers a good measure of relative profitability of capital
expenditure by reducing the earnings to the present values.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Discounted Cashflow Techniques ? Demerits
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
This method is criticised on the following grounds :
(1) It involves a good amount of calculations. Hence it is difficult and
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
complicated one. But this criticism has no force.89
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
(2) It is very difficult to forecast the economic life of any investment exactly.
(3) The selection of cash-inflow is based on sales forecasts which is in itself an
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
indeterminable element.(4) The selection of an appropriate rate of interest is also difficult.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
COMPARISON BETWEEN NPV AND IRR (NPV Vs. IRR)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
The Net Present value method and the Internal Rate of Return Method
are similar in the sense that both are modern techniques of capital budgeting and
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
both take into account the time value of money. In fact, both these methods are
discounted cash flow techniques. However, there are certain basic differences
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
between these two methods of capital budgeting:(i) In the net present value method the present value is determined by
discounting the future cash flows of a project at a predetermined or specified
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
rate called the cut off rate based on cost of capital. But under the internal rate of
return method, the cash flows are discounted at a suitable rate by hit and trial
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
method which equates the present value so calculated to the amount of theinvestment. Under IRR method, discount
rate is not predetermined.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
(ii) The NPV method recognises the importance of market rate of interest or cost
of capital. It arrives at the amount to be invested in a given project so that its
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
anticipated earnings would recover the amount invested in the project at marketrate. Contrary to this, the IRR method docs not consider the market rate of
interest and seeks to determine the maximum rate of interest at which funds
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
invested in any project could be repaid with the earnings generated by the
project.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
90
(iii) The basic presumption of NPV method is that intermediate cash inflows are
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
reinvested at the cut off rate, whereas, in the case of IRR method, intermediatecash flows arc presumed to be reinvested at the internal rate of return.'
(iv) The results shown by NPV method are similar to that of IRR method under
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
certain situations, whereas, the two give contradictory results under some other
circumstances. However, it must be remembered that NPV method using a
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
predetermined cut-off rate is more reliable than the IRR method for ranking twoor more capital investment proposals.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
(a) Similarities of Results Under NPV and IRR
Both NPV and IRR methods would show similar results in terms of accept or
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
reject decisions in the following cases :(i) Independent investment proposals which do not compete with one another
and which may be either accepted or-rejected on the basis of a minimum
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
required rate of return.
(ii) Conventional investment proposals which involve cash outflows or outlays
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
in the initial period followed by a series of cash inflows.--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
The reason for similarity of results in the above cases lies on the basis of
decision-making in the two methods. Under NPV method, a proposal is accepted
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
if its net present value is positive, whereas, under IRR method it is accepted ifthe internal rate of return is higher than the cut off rate. The projects which have
positive net present value, obviously, also have an internal rate of return higher
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
than the required rate of return.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
91
(b) Conflict Between NPV and IRR Results
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
In case of mutually exclusive investment proposals, which
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
compete with one another in such a manner that acceptance of one automatically
excludes the acceptance of the other, the NPV method and IRR method may
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
give contradictory results. The net present value may suggest acceptance of oneproposal whereas, the internal rate of return may favour another proposal. Such
conflict in rankings may be caused by any one or more of the following
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
problems:
(i) Significant difference in the size. (amount) of cash outlays of various
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
proposals under consideration.(ii) Problem of difference in the cash flow patterns or timings of the various
proposals and
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
(iii) difference in service life or unequal expected lives of the projects.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
PROBLEMS AND KEY1) Equipment A has a cost of Rs 75,000 and net cash flow of Rs 20,000 per year
for six years. A substitute equipment B would cost Rs 50,000 and generate net
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
cash flow of Rs 14,000 per year for six years. The required rate of return of both
equipments is 11 per cent. Calculate the IRR and NPV for the equipments.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Which equipment should be accepted and why?Solution :
Equipment A
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
NPV =
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
20,000 x PVAF6,0.11 - 75,000=
20,000 x 4.231 - 75,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
=
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
84,620 - 75,000 = Rs 9,620IRR
=
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
20,000 x PVAF6,r = 75,000
PVAF6,r =
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
75,000 / 20,000 = 3.7592
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
From the present value of an annuity table, we find:PVAF6,0.15 =
3.784
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
PVAF6,0.16 =
3.685
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Therefore,--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
3.784 ? 3.75
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
IRR = r = 0.15 + 0.01 -------------------
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
3.784 ? 3.685= 0.15 + 0.0034 = 0.1534 or 15.34%
Equipment B:
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
NPV =
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
14,000 x PVAF6,0.11 - 50,000=
14,000 x 4.231 - 50,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
=
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
59,234 - 50,000 = Rs 9,234IRR
=
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
14,000 x PVAF6,r = 50,000
PVAF6,r =
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
50,000 / 14,000 = 3.571From the present value of an annuity table, we find:
PVAF6,0.17 =
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
3.589
PVAF6,0.18 =
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
3.498Therefore,
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
3.589 ? 3.571
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
IRR = r = 0.17 + 0.01 ---------------------- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
3.589 ? 3.498
= 0.17 + 0.002 = 0.172 or 17.20%
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Equipment A has a higher NPV but lower IRR as compared with equipment B.
Therefore equipment A should be preferred since the wealth of the shareholders
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
will be maximised.--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
93
5) For each of the following projects compute (i) pay-back period, (ii) post pay-
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
back profitability and (iii) post-back profitability indexa)
Initial outlay
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.50,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Annual cash inflow (after tax but before depreciation)Rs.10,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Estimated life
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
8 Years
b)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Initial outlay--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.50,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Annual cash inflow (after tax but before depreciation)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
First three years
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.15,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Next five years
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs. 5,000Estimated life
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
8 Years
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Salvage
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs. 8,000Solution
a)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
i) Pay-back period = Investment / Annual Cash Flow
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
= 50,000 / 10,000 = 5 Years
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
ii) Post pay back profitability--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
= Annual cash inflow (estimated life?pay backperiod)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
= 10,000 (8 ? 5) = Rs. 30,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
iii) Post back profitability index = 30,000 / 50,000 x 100 = 60%
b)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
i) As the case inflows are the equal during the life of the investment payback period can be calculated as:
1st year's cash inflow
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
=Rs.15,000
2nd year's cash inflow
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
=Rs.15,000
3rd year's cash inflow
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
=Rs.15,000
4th year's cash inflow
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
=Rs. 5,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.50,000Hence, the pay-back period is 4 years.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
94
ii) Post pay back profitability
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
= Annual cash inflow x remaining life after pay ?back
period)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
= 5,000 x 4 = Rs. 20,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
iii) Post back profitability index = 20,000 / 50,000 x 100 = 40%
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
6) X Ltd. is considering the purchase of a machine. Two machines are availableE and F. the cost of each machine is Rs. 60,000. Each machine has expected life
of 5 years. Net profits before tax and after depreciation during expected life of
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
the machines are given below:
Year
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Machine E (Rs)Machine F (Rs.)
1
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
15,000
5,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
220,000
15,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
3
25,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
20,0004
15,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
30,000
5
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
10,00020,000
Total
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
85,000
90,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Solution
Statement of Profitability
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Year
Machine E
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Machine FProfit
Tax at
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Profit
Profit
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Tax atProfit
after tax
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
50%
after tax
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
before tax50%
after tax
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
(Rs.)
(Rs.)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
(Rs.)(Rs.)
(Rs.)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
(Rs.)
1
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
15,0007,500
7,500
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
5,000
2,500
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
2,5002
20,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
10,000
10,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
10,0005,000
5,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
95
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
325,000
12,500
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
12,500
20,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
10,00010,000
4
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
15,000
7,500
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
7,50030,000
15,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
15,000
5
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
10,0005,000
5,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
20,000
10,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
10,000Total
85,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
42,500
42,500
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
90,00045,000
45,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Machine E
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Machine F
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Average profit after tax 42,500 x 1/5 = Rs. 8500 45,000 x 1/5 = Rs. 9000Average investment 60,000 x ? = Rs. 30000 60,000 x ? = Rs. 30000
Average return on average 8500/30000 x 100
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
9000/30000 x 100
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
= 28.33%
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
= 30%
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Thus, machine F is more profitable.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
7) From the following information calculate the net present value of the twoprojects and suggest which of the two projects should be accepted assuming a
discount rate of 10%.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Project X
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Project Y
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Initial investmentRs.20,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.30,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Estimated life5 Years
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
5 Years
Scrap value
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs. 1,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs. 2,000
The profits before depreciation and after taxes (cash flows) are as follows:
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Year 1
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Year 2 Year 3 Year 4
Year 5
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.Project X
5000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
10000
10000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
30002000
Project Y
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
20000
10000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
50003000
2000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Solution :
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
96
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Calculations for net present valueProject X
Year
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Cash flows
Present value of Re 1 @
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Present value ofRs.
10% (discount factore)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
net cash flows
using present value tables
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.1
5000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
.909
4545
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
210000
.826
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
8260
3
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
10000.751
7510
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
4
3000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
.6832049
5 (Scrap
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
2000
.621
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
1242value)
1000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
.621
621
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
24227
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.
Present value of all cash inflows
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
24227
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Less present value of initial investment--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
20000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
(because all the investment is to be made in the firstyear only, the present value is the same as the cost of
the initial investment)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Net present values
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
=
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
4227PROJECT Y
Year
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Cash flows
Present value of Re 1 @
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Present value ofRs.
10% (discount factore)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
net cash flows
using present value tables
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.1
20000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
.909
18180
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
210000
.826
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
8260
3
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
5000.751
3755
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
97
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
43000
.683
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
2049
5 (Scrap
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
2000.621
1242
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
value)
2000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
.6211242
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
34728--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.Present value of all cash inflows
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
34728
Less present value of initial investment
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
30000
(because all the investment is to be made in the first
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
year only, the present value is the same as the cost of
the initial investment)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Net present values--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
=
4728
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
We find that net present value of Project Y is higher than that the net present
value of Project X and hence it is suggested that project Y should be selected.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
9) Two mutually exclusive investment proposals are being considered. Thefollowing information is available.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Project X
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Project Y--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.Cost
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.6000--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs. 6000
Cash inflow
Year
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Probability
Rs.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Probability
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
1--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
4000
.2
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
8000
.2
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
2
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
8000
.6
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
9000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
.63
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
12000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
.29000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
.2
Assuming cost of capital at 10%, advise the selection of the project.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Solution :--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
98
CALCULATION OF NET PRESENT VALUES OF THE TWO PROJECTS
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Year P.V.Factor Project X
Project Y
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
@ 10%Cash
Proba-
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Monetary Present Cash
Proba-
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Monetary Presentinflows bility
value
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
value
inflows bility
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
valuevalue
Rs.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.
Rs.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.1
.909
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
4000
.2
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
800727
7000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
.2
1400
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
12732
.826
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
8000
.6
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
48003965
8000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
.6
4800
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
39653
.751
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
12000
.2
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
24001802
9000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
.2
1800
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
1352Total present value
6494
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
6590
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Less: cost of investment6000
6000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Net present value
494
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
590
As net present value of project is more than that of project X after taking into
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
consideration the probabilities of cash inflows. Project Y is more profitable.
Summary
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Capital budgeting is a double-edged tool that analyses investment opportunitiesand cost of capital simultaneously while evaluating worth whileness of a project.
A wide range of criteria has been suggested to judge the worth whileness of
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investment projects. Capital projects need to be thoroughly evaluated as to costs
and benefits. The capital budgeting process begins with assembling of
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investment proposals of different departments of a firm. The departmental headwill have innumerable alternative projects available to meet his requirements.
He has to select the best alternative from among the conflicting proposals. This
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selection is made after estimating return on the projects and comparing the same
with the cost of capital. Investment proposal which gives the highest net
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marginal return will be chosen. Following are the steps involved in theevaluation of an investment:1) Estimation of cash flows, 2) Estimation of the
required rate of return and 3) Application of a decision rule for making the
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choice. A sound appraisal technique should be used to measure the economic
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99worth of an investment project. The various techniques of investment appraisal
methods include : Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) Criteria i) Net present value
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(NPV), ii) Internal rate of return (IRR) and iii) Profitability index (PI). Non-
discounted Cash Flow Criteria i) Pay-back period, ii) Discounted payback
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period and iii) Accounting rate of return (ARR).Key words
Payback period. A method of evaluating investment proposal which determines
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the time a project's cash inflows will take to repay the original investments of
the project.
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Average rate of return. Also known as the accounting rate of return (ARK),return on investment (ROT) or return on assets (ROA), is obtained by dividing
average annual post-tax profit by the average investment.
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Discount rate. The rate at which cash flows are discounted. This rate may be
taken as the requiredrate of return on capital, or the cost of capital.
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Internal rate of return. The IRR is a method of evaluating investmentproposals. It is that rate of discount (or interest rate) that equals the present value
of outflows to the present value of inflows, thus making NPV=Q.
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Mutually exclusive projects. A situation in which the acceptance of one
investment proposal leaves out the acceptance of another proposal.
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Net Present Value. A method of evaluation consisting of comparing the presentvalue of all net cash flows (discounted by cost of capital as the interest rate) to
the initial investment cost.
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100
REVIEW QUESTIONS
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1)
What is meant by pay back method? State its advantages.
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2)How do you calculate the accounting rate of return? What are its
limitations?
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3)
Under what circumstances do the net present value and internal rate of
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return methods differ? Which method would you prefer and why?4)
What are the mutually exclusive projects? Explain the conditions when
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conflicting ranking would be given by the internal rate of return and net
present value methods to such projects.
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5)What is profitability index? Which is a superior ranking criterion,
profitability index or the net present value?
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6)
Under what conditions would the internal rate of return be a reciprocal of
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the payback period?7) Explain the investment criteria.
8) Discuss the various methods of appraisal of investment proposals.
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9) Differential between NPV and IRR method
10) Write short note on
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a) Time adjusted rate of returnb) Profitability index
11) Do the NPV and Profitability index always lead to the same investment
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decision? Discuss.
12) Discuss the techniques of various investment appraisal methods in capital
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budgeting.13) Mention the features required by investment evaluation criteria.
*****
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101
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LESSON ? 3
RISK ANALYSIS IN CAPITAL BUDGETING
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LESSON OUTLINE
Capital rationing ? meaning
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Measuring of risk anduncertainty
Types of uncertainties
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Precautions for uncertaintiesRisk and investment proposals
Risk and uncertainty
Incorporated methods of
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Capital project evaluation--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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After reading this lesson youshould be able to
Understand the meaning of
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Capital rationingKnow the meaning of risk and
uncertainty
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To describe the types of
uncertainties
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To review the precautions foruncertainties
To identify the risk and
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investment proposals
Describe
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therisk
and
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uncertainty
incorporated
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methods of capital projectevaluation.
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102
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Capital Rationing ? Meaning
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Capital rationing refers to a situation where a firm is not in a position to invest in
all profitable projects due to the constraints on availability of funds. We know
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that the resources are always limited and the demand for them far exceeds theiravailability, It is for this reason that the firm cannot take up ail the projects
though profitable, and has to select the combination of proposals that will yield
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the greatest profitability.
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Capital rationing is a situation where a firm has more investmentproposals than it can finance. It may be defined as "a situation where a
constraint is placed on the total size of capital investment during a particular
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period". In such an event the firm has to select combination of investment
proposals that provide the highest net present value subject to the budget
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constraint for the period. Selecting of projects for this purpose will require thetaking of the following steps;
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(i)
Ranking of projects according to profitability index or internal'-rate
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of return.(ii)
Selecting projects in descending order of profitability until the
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budget figures are exhausted keeping in view the objective of
maximising the value of the firm.
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Meaning Of Risk And Uncertainty
Risk and uncertainty are quite inherent in capital budgeting decisions. Future is
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uncertain and involve risk. Risk involves situations in which the probabilities of
an event occurring are known and these probabilities are objectively
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determinable. Uncertainty is a subjective phenomenon. In such situation, no103
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observation can be drawn from frequency distribution. The risk associated with
a project may be defined as the variability that is likely to occur in the future
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returns from the project. A wide range of factors give rise to risk and uncertaintyin capital investment, viz. competition, technological development, changes in
consumer preferences, economic factors, both general and those peculiar to the
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investment, political factors etc. Inflation and deflation are bound to affect the
investment decision in future period rendering the deeper of uncertainty more
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severe and enhancing the scope of risk. Technological developments are otherfactors that enhance the degree of risk and uncertainty by rendering the plants or
equipments obsolete and the product out of date. It is worth noting that
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distinction between risk and uncertainty is of academic interest only. Practically
no generally accepted methods could so far be evolved to deal with situation of
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uncertainty while there are innumerable techniques to deal with risk. In view ofthis, the terms risk and uncertainty are used exchangeably in the discussion of
capital budgeting.
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The capital budgeting decision is based upon the benefits derived from
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the project. These benefits are measured in terms of cash flows. These cashflows are estimates. The estimation of future returns is done on the basis of
various assumptions. The actual return in terms of cash inflows depends on a
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variety of factors such as price, sales volume, effectiveness of the advertising
campaign, competition, cost of raw materials, etc. The accuracy of the estimates
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of future returns and therefore the reliability of the investment decision wouldlargely depend upon the precision with which these factors are forecast. In
reality, the actual returns will vary from the estimate. This is referred to risk.
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The term `risk' with reference to investment decisions may be defined as the
variability in the actual returns emanating from a project in future over its
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104
working life in relation to the estimated return as forecast at the time of the
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initial capital budgeting decision.According to Luce R.D and H. Raiffa in their book, `Games and
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Decision' (1957), the decision situations with reference to risk analysis in capital
budgeting decisions can be broken into three types.
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i)Uncertainty
ii)
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Risk and
iii)
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CertaintyThe risk situation is one in which the probabilities of a particular event
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occurring are known. The difference between risk and uncertainty lies in the fact
that the variability is less in risk than in the uncertainty.
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In the words of Osteryang, J.S. `Capital budgeting' risk refers to the set
of unique outcomes for a given event which can be assigned probabilities while
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uncertainty refers to the outcomes of a given event which are too sure to be
assigned probabilities.
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Types of Uncertainties
Several types of uncertainties are important to the producer, as he formulates,
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plans and designs courses of actions for procuring resources at the present time
for a product forthcoming at a future date. The types of uncertainties can be
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classified as (i) Price uncertainty (ii) Production uncertainty (iii) Productiontechnology uncertainty (iv) Political uncertainty (v) Personal uncertainty; and
(vi) Peoples' uncertainty.
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Precautions for Uncertainties
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Precautionary measures to meet uncertainty can take one or all the threefollowing distinct forms: (i) Measures can be adopted to reduce the variability or
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105
dispersion of income; (ii) Measures can be adopted to prevent profit from falling
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below some minimum level; (iii) Measures can be adopted to increase the firm'sability to withstand unfavourable economic outcomes.
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Risk And Investment Proposals
There are two measures of incorporating risk in the decision ? making. They
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are: 1) The expected value and 2) The standard deviation.1)
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The Expected Value : In a situation of certainty, any investment gives
only one possible cash flow out in a risky situation several cash flows are
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possible, each with a given probability. By as certaining the average of all suchpossible outcomes (X)1 weighed by their respective probabilities (P) we can get
a single value for the cash flows. The value is known as expected value E (X),
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whose generalized expression is
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n
E (X) = Xi pi
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i=1
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2)
The Standard Deviation : The statistical concept of standard deviation is
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used as a yard stick that reflects the variations of possible outcomes from its
mean value. The standard deviation is calculated as:
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n
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-2
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=
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(Xi ? X) Pi106
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i=1where, = standard deviation
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X, X and P represent the same.
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Note: The combination of expected value and standard deviation helps in
choosing between projects. However, if the two projects have identical expected
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values, the project with the minimum dispersion in returns i.e., lower standard
deviation is preferred as it is less risky project.
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Risk and Uncertainty incorporated methods of Capital Project evaluation
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Risk with reference to capital (budgeting) investment decisions may be defined
as the variability which is likely to occur in future between estimated return and
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actual return. Uncertainty is total lack of ability to pinpoint expected return.Situations of pure risk, refer to contingencies which have to be
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protected against the normal insurance practice of pooling. For this to be so,
risk situations are characterized by a considerable degree of past experience.
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Uncertainty on the other hand relates to situations in some sense unique and ofwhich there is very little certain knowledge of some or all significant aspects.
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The techniques used to handle risk may be classified into the groups as
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follows:(a) Conservative methods ? These methods include shorter payback period,
risk-adjusted discount rate, and conservative forecasts or certainty equivalents
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etc., and
(b) Modern methods ? They include sensitivity analysis, probability analysis,
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decision-tree analysis etc.107
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i. Conservative Methods
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The conservative methods of risk handling are dealt with now.1. Shorter Payback Period. According to this method, projects with shorter
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payback period are normally preferred to those with longer payback period. It
would be more effective when it is combined with "cut off period". Cut off
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period denotes the risk tolerance level of the firms. For example, a firm has threeprojects. A , B and C for consideration with different economic lives say 15,16
and 8 years respectively and with payback periods of say 6, 7 and 5 years. Of
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these three, project C will be preferred, for its payback period is the shortest.
Suppose, the cut off period is 4 years, .then all the three projects will be rejected.
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2. Risk Adjusted Discount Rate (RADR). Risk Adjusted Discount Rate is
based on the same logic as the net present value method. Under this method,
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discount rate is adjusted in accordance with the degree of risk. That is, a risk
discount factor (known as risk-premium rate) is determined and added to the
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discount factor (risk free rate) otherwise used for calculating net present value.For example, the rate of interest (r) employed in the discounting is 10 per cent
and the risk discount factor or degrees of risk (d) are 2, 4 and 5 per cent for
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mildly risky, moderately risky and high risk (or speculative) projects
respectively then the total rate of discount (D) would respectively be 12 per cent,
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14 per cent and 15 .per cent.That is RADR = 1/ (8+r+d). The idea is the greater the risk the higher
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the discount rate. That is, for the first year the total discount factor, D= 1 /
(1+r+d) for the second year RADR = 1 / (1+r+d)2 and so on.
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108
Normally, risk discount factor would vary from project to project depending
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upon the quantum of risk. It is estimated on the basis of judgment and intentionon the part of management, which in turn are subject to risk attitude of
management.
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It may be noted that the higher the risk, the higher the risk adjusteddiscount rate, and the lower the discounted present value. The Risk Adjusted
Discount Rate is composite of discount rate which combines .both time and risk
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factors.
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Risk Adjusted Discount Rate can be used with both N.P.V: and LRX Inthe case of N.P.V. future cash flows should be discounted using Risk Adjusted
Discount Rate and then N.P.V. may be ascertained. If the N.P.V. were positive,
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the project would qualify for acceptance. A negative N.P.V. would signify that
the project should be rejected. IfLR.R. method were used, the I.R.R. would be
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computed and compared "with the modified discount rate. If it exceeds modifieddiscount rate, the proposal would be accepted, otherwise rejected.
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Risk Adjusted Discount Rate Method ? Merits :
i) This technique is simple and easy to handle in practice.
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ii) The discount rates can be adjusted for the varying degrees of risk indifferent years, simply by increasing or decreasing the risk factor (d) in
calculating the risk adjusted discount rate.
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iv)
This method of discounting is such that the higher the risk factor in
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the remote future is, automatically accounted for. The risk adjusteddiscount rate is a composite rate which combines both the time and
discount factors.
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109Risk Adjusted Discount Rate Method ? Demerits :
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i) The value of discount factor must necessarily remain subjective as it is
primarily based on investor's attitude towards risk. .
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ii) A uniform risk discount factor used for discounting al future returns isunscientific as-it implies the risk level of investment remains same over the
years where as in practice is not so.
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Certainty-Equivalent Coefficient Approach. This risk element in any
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decision is often characterized by the two Outcomes: the 'potential gain' at theone end and the 'potential loss' at the other. These are respectively called the
focal gain and focal loss. In this connection. Shackle proposes the concept of
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"potential surprise" which is a unit of measurement indicating the decision-
maker's surprise at the occurrence of an event other than what he was expecting.
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He also introduces "another concept - the "certainty equivalent" of riskyinvestment. For an investment X with a given degree of risk, investor can
always find another risk less investment Xi such that he is indifferent between
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X arid Xi. The difference between X and Xi is implicitly the risk ^discount.
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The risk level of the project under this method is taken into account byadjusting the expected cash inflows and the discount rate. Thus the expected
cash inflows are reduced to a conservative level by a risk-adjustment factor
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(also called correction factor). This factor is expressed in terms of Certainty -
Equivalent Co-efficient which is the ratio of risk less cash flows to risky cash
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Risk less cash flow
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= ----------------------------------
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Risky cash flows
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This co-efficient is calculated for cash flows of each year. The value of
the co-efficient may vary-between 0 and 1, there is inverse relationship between
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the degree of risk, and the value of co-efficient computed.These adjusted cash inflows are used for calculating N.P.V. and the
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I.R.R. The discount rate to be used for calculating present values will be risk-
free (i.e., the rate reflecting the time value of money). Using this criterion of the
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N.P.V. the project would be accepted, if the N.P.V were positive, otherwise itwould be rejected. The I.R.R. will be compared with risk free discount rate and
if it higher the project will be accepted, otherwise rejected.
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The Finite-horizon Method. This method is similar to payback method applied
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under the condition of certainty. In this method, a terminal data is fixed. In thedecision making, only the expected returns or gain prior to the terminal data are
considered. The gains or benefit expected beyond the terminal data are ignored
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me gains are simply treated as non-existent. The logic behind this approach is
that the developments during the period under Consideration might render the
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gains beyond terminal date of no consequence. For example, a hydel projectmight go out of use, when, say, after 50-years,of its installation, the atomic or
solar energy becomes available in abundance and at lower cost.
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MODERN METHODS
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Sensitivity AnalysisThis provides information about case flows under three assumptions: i)
pessimistic, ii) most likely and iii) optimistic outcomes associated with the
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project. It is superior to one figure forecast as it gives a more precise idea about
the variability of the return. This explains how sensitive the cash flows or under
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111
the above mentioned different situations. The larger is the difference between
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the pessimistic and optimistic cash flows, the more risky is the project.
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Decision Tree AnalysisDecision tree analysis is another technique which is helpful in tackling risky
capital investment proposals. Decision tree is a graphic display of relationship
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between a present decision and possible future events, future decisions and their
consequence. The sequence of event is mapped out over time in a format
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resembling branches of a tree. In other words, it is pictorial representation in treefrom which indicates the magnitude probability and inter-relationship of all
possible outcomes.
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Elements Of Decision Theory
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Managerial Economics focuses attention on the development of tools for findingout an optimal or best solution for the specified objectives in business. Any
decision has the following elements:
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1. The Decision Maker.
2. Objectives or goals sought to be achieved by the decision maker; for
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example, maximisation of profit or sales revenue may be the objective of thebusiness.
3. A set of choice alternatives. For example, in Capital budgeting, the
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available projects.
4. A set of outcomes or pay-offs with each alternatives; that is net benefits
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from the projects. Outcomes may be certain or uncertain. In case of former,the selection of any alternative leads uniquely to a specific pay-off. In case of
latter, any one of a number of outcomes may be associated with any specific
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decision.
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1125. A number of states of the environment whose occurrence determines the
possible outcomes. For example, inflation and depression would be two
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alternative states, hi the absence of risk and uncertainty, the outcome of aproject is known. Therefore only one state of the environment is possible.
The study of Managerial Economics begins with developing awareness of the
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environment within which managerial decisions are made.
6. Criteria derived from the general objectives which enable the decision
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taker to rank the various alternatives in terms of how far their pay-offs lead tothe achievement of the decision maker's goals. This is known as the decision
process.
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7. Constraints on the alternatives when the decision maker may select. For
example, the government policy on monopoly control; top management
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directions regarding business undertakings, diversification of business ordiversifying an existing product line or to refrain from certain types of
business, etc.
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Risk Analysis in the case of Single Project
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Project risk refers to fluctuation in its payback period, ARR, IRR, NPV or so.Higher the fluctuation, higher is the risk and vice versa. Let us take NPV based
risk.
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If NPV from year to year fluctuate, there is risk. This can be measuredthrough standard deviation of the NPV figures. Suppose the expected NPV of a
project is Rs. 18 lakhs, and std.'-deviation of Rs. 6 lakhs. The coefficient of
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variation C V is given by std. deviation divided by NPV.
C, V = Rs. 6,00,000 / Rs. 18,00,000 = 0.33
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Risk Return Analysis for Multi Projects
When multiple projects are considered together, what is the overall risk of all
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projects put together? Is it the aggregate average of std. deviation of NPV of allprojects? No, it is not. Then What? Now another variable has to be brought to
the scene. That is the correlation coefficient between NPVs of pairs of projects.
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When two projects are considered together, the variation in the combined NPV
is influenced by the extent of correlation between NPVs of the projects in
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question. A high correlation results in high risk and vice versa. So, the risk of allprojects put together in the form 'of combined std. deviation is given by the
formula:
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p = [ Pij i j ]1/2
where,
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p ? combined portfolio std. deviationPij ? correlation between NPVs of pairs of projects.
ij ? std. deviation of ith and jth projects, i.e., any pair time.
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Summary
Capital rationing refers to a situation where a firm is not in a position to invest in
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all profitable projects due to the constraints on availability of funds. We knowthat the resources are always limited and the demand for them far exceeds their
availability, It is for this reason that the firm cannot take up ail the projects
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though profitable, and has to select the combination of proposals that will yield
the greatest profitability.
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Risk and uncertainty are quite inherent in capital budgeting decisions.
Future is uncertain and involve risk. Risk involves situations in which the
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probabilities of an event occurring are known and these probabilities are
objectively determinable. Uncertainty is a subjective phenomenon. In such
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114
situation, no observation can be drawn from frequency distribution. The risk
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associated with a project may be defined as the variability that is likely to occurin the future returns from the project. A wide range of factors give rise to risk
and uncertainty in capital investment, viz. competition, technological
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development, changes in consumer preferences, economic factors, both general
and those peculiar to the investment, political factors etc. The types of
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uncertainties can be classified as (i) Price uncertainty (ii) Production uncertainty(iii) Production technology uncertainty (iv) Political uncertainty (v) Personal
uncertainty; and (vi) Peoples' uncertainty.
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The techniques used to handle risk may be classified into the groups as
follows: (a) Conservative methods ? These methods include shorter payback
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period, risk-adjusted discount rate, and conservative forecasts or certaintyequivalents etc., and (b) Modern methods ? They include sensitivity analysis,
probability analysis, decision-tree analysis etc. in the case of capital rationing,
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profitability index is the best method of evaluation.
Key words
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Capital rationing. When availability of capital to a firm is limited,-the firm isconstrained in its choice of projects. Capital rationing is restricting capital
expenditure to certain amount, even when projects with positive NPV need be
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rejected (which would be accepted in unlimited funds case).
Expected value (or expected monetary value). A weighted average of all
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possible outcomes, their respective probabilities taken as weights.Pay-off. The monetary gain or loss from each of the outcomes.
Probability. A ratio representing the chance that a particular event will occur.
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Probability distribution. A distribution indicating the chances of all possible
occurrences.
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115
Risk. Refers to a situation in which there are several possible outcomes, each
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outcome occurring with a probability that is known to the decision-maker.
Risk-adjusted discount rate (RADR). Sum of risk-free interest rate and a risk
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premium. The former is often taken as the interest rate on government securities.The risk premium is what the decision-maker subjectively considers as the
additional return necessary to compensate for additional risk.
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Standard deviation. The degree of dispersion of possible outcomes around the
expected value. It is the square root of the weighted average of the squared
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deviations of all possible outcomes from the expected value.Certainty equivalent. A ratio of certain cashflow and the expected value of a
risky cashflow between which the decision-maker is indifferent.
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Coefficient of variation. A measure of risk is used for comparing standard
deviations of projects with unequal expected values.
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Uncertainty. Refers to situations in which there are several possible outcomesof an action whose probabilities are either not known or are not meaningful.
Decision Tree. A graphic device that shows a sequence of strategic decisions
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and expected consequences under each possible situation.
Maximax. Maximum profit is found for each act and the strategy in which the
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maximum profit is largest is chosen.Maximin. When maximum of the minimums are selected. This criterion is used
by decision-makers with pessimistic and conservative outlook.
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Minimax. When minimum of the maximums are selected. This criterion is used
for minimising cost (unlike maximin, where pay-off and profit are maximised).
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Minimax Regret. Finding maximax regret value for each act, and then choosingthe act having minimum of these maximum regret values.
Opportunity Loss (or Regret). The difference between actual profit from a
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decision and the profit from the best decision for the event.
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116Simulation Analysis. A method that assigns a probability distribution to each of
the key variables and uses random numbers to simulate a set of possible
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outcomes to arrive at an expected value and dispersion.Sensitivity Analysis. Defined as the examination of a decision to find the
degree of inaccuracv in the underlying assumptions that can be tolerated without
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causing the decision to be inappropriate.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS1) Write a note on capital rationing.
2) What is risk? Differentiate it from uncertainty.
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3) What is risk analysis in capital budgeting?
4) Explain the method through which risks can be minimized?
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5) Enumerate the types of uncertainties.6) What are the elements of decision theory?
7) "Risk analysis of capital investments is one of the most complex,
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controversial and slippery areas in finance" Discuss.
8) What is meant by decision tree analysis?
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9) Analyse risk in the case of single project and multi project?10) What are the measures of incorporating risk in the decision ? making?
*****
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117
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LESSON ? IVCOST OF CAPITAL
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LESSON OUTLINE
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introductiondefinition of cost of capital
Significance
Determination of cost of
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Capital ? problems involvedMeasurement of cost of
Capital
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Cost of preference shareCapital
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Cost of equity capitalCost of retained earnings
Weighted average cost of
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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After reading this lesson you
should be able to
Understand the meaning of
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Cost of capital
Know the significance of cost
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of capitalIdentify
the
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problems
in
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determination of cost of capitalUnderstand
the
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various
methods of measuring the cost
of capital.
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118INTRODUCTION
Cost of capital plays an important role in the capital budgeting decisions. It
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determines the acceptability of all investment opportunities regardless of thetechniques employed to judge the financial viability of a project. Cost of capital
serves as capitalization rate used to determine capitalisaiton of a new concern.
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With the help of this very rate realworth of various investments of the firm can
be evaluated. Cost of capital provides useful guidelines in determining optimal
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capital structure of a firm. It refers to the minimum rate of return of a firm whichmust earn on its investment so that the market value of the company's equity
share may not fall. In the words of Hampton, John J, cost of capital is the rate of
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return the firm requires firm investment in order to increase the value of the firm
in the market place. The concept of cost is perceived in different dimensions,
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that are briefed below:a) A firm's cost of capital is really the rate of return that it requires on the
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projects available.
b) A firm's cost of capital represents the minimum rate of return that will
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result in atleast maintaining the value of its equity shares.Defintions
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Cost of capital is one rate of return the capital funds used should produce to
justify their use within the firm.
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i)According to Solomon Ezra, the cost of capital is the minimum
required rate of earnings of the cut off rate for capital expenditure.
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ii)
In the words of Haley and Schall, in a general sense, cost of capital is
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any discount rate used to value cash streams.119
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iii)
According to James C. Vanhorne, the cost of capital represents a cut
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off rate for the allocation of capital investment of projects. It is therate of return on a project that will have unchanged the market price
of the stock.
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Cost of Capital ? Significance
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The determination of the firm's cost of capital is important from the point ofview of both capital budgeting as well as capital structure planning decisions.
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(i)
Capital budgeting decisions. In capital budgeting decisions, the cost
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of capital is often used as a discount rate on the basis of which thefirm's future cash flows are discounted to find out their present
values. Thus, the cost of capital is the very basis for financial
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appraisal of new capital expenditure proposals. The decision of the
finance manager will be irrational and wrong in case the cost of
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capital is not correctly determined. This is because the business mustearn least at a rate which equals to its cost capital in order to make at
least a break-even.
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(ii)
Capital structure decisions. The cost of capital is also an important
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consideration in capital structure decisions. The finance managermust raise capital from different sources in a way that it optimises the
risk and cost factors. The sources of funds which have less cost
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involve high risk. Raising of loans may, therefore, be cheaper on
account of income tax benefits, but it involves heavy risk because a
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slight fall in the earning capacity of the company may bring the firmnear to cash insolvency. It is, therefore, absolutely necessary that cost
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120
of each source of funds is carefully considered and compared with
the risk involved with it.
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In order to compute the overall cost of capital, the manager of funds hasto take the following steps:
1) To determine the type of funds to be raised and their share in the total
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capitalization of the firm.
2) To ascertain the cost of each type of funds.
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3) To calculate the combined cost of capital if the firm by assigning weightto each type of funds in terms of quantum of funds so raised.
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Determination Of Cost Of Capital ? Problems Involved
It is not an early task to determine the cost of capital of a firm. While
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determining the cost of capital of a firm, the funds manager is confronted with alarge number of problems both conceptual and practical.
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i)
Computation of cost of equity : The cost of equity capital is the minimum
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rate of return that a company must earn on that portion of its capital employed,which is financed by equity capital so that the market price of the shares of the
company remains unchanged. This implies that to find out the cost of equity
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capital one has to quantity the expectations of the shareholders from the
particular equity shares. As it is a difficult task, a precise measure of cost of
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equity capital is also an arduous task.ii)
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Computation of cost of retained earnings and depreciation funds : The
cost of capital raised through these sources will depend on the approach adopted
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for computing the cost of capital. As there are different views, the funds121
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manager has to face a difficult task in subscribing and selecting an appropriate
approach.
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iii) Marginal Vs average cost of capital : For decision ? making purposes, it
is the future cost of capital and not historical cost of capital which is relevant. If
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therefore creates another problem whether to consider marginal cost of capital,
i.e., cost of additional funds or the average cost of capital.
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iv) Problem of weights: The assignment of weights of each type of funds is a
complex issue. If a financial executive wants to ascertain the average cost of
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capital than the problem of weights also arises. The finance manger has to make
a choice between the book value of each source of funds and the market value of
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each source of funds. Both have their any merits as well as weaknesses.Measurement of The Cost Of Capital
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The cost of the different sources of financing represents the components of
continued cost. Each firm has ideal capital mix of various sources of funds;
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external sources (debt, preferred stock and equity stock) and internal sources(reserves and surplus). Determining of cost of capital involves relating the
expected outcome of the specific source of capital to the market or book value of
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that source. Expected income in thin context comprises interest, discount on
debt, dividends, EPS or similar other variables most suitable to the particular
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case. The computation of the cost of capital involves two steps. i) Thecomputation of the different elements of the cost in terms of the cost of the
different source of finance, and ii) the calculation of the overall cost by
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combining the specific cost into a composite cost.
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122
Cost of Preference Share Capital
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A security sold in a market place promising a fixed rupee return per period isknown as a preference share or preferred stock. Dividends on preferred stock
are cumulative in the sense that if the firm is unable to pay when promised by it,
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then these keep on getting accumulated until paid, and these must be paid before
dividends are paid to ordinary shareholders. The rate of dividend is specified in
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case of preference shares. Preference shares are of two kinds: the redeemableand irredeemable preference shares. In case of redeemable preference shares the
period of repayment is specified, while for irredeemable ones this is not done.
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The important difference in the true cost of debentures and preferenceshares must be noted. Interest on debentures is considered as an expense by tax
authorities and is, therefore, deducted from company's income fortax purposes.
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That is why the true cost of debentures is the after tax cost. On the other hand,
the dividends are paid to preference shareholders after the company has paid tax
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on its income (including that portion of income which is to be paid to preferenceshareholders). Therefore, the true cost of preference capital is the before tax cost
which may be found as :
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Cp (before tax) = Rate of dividend [ 1 / (1 ? corporate tax rate)] x 100
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For example, if dividend rate is 10% and a corporate tax 65%, the cost of
preference capital is:
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Cp = 0.10 [1 / (1 ? 0.65)] x 100 = 28.6%.
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Cost of this source of capital is very difficult to measure. Many
methods have been suggested, but no method is clearly the best. Here, three
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123
popular approaches for estimating cost of equity capital are presented. Like
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preference capital, cost of equity capital is also calculated before-cost, as tax
does not affect this cost.
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Method I. The Risk-Free Rate Plus Risk Premium.
Since the equity holders are paid only after the debt servicing is done, it is
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generally found that investment is equity is riskier in than investment in bonds.
Therefore, an investor will demand a return on equity (re) which will consist of:
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(i) a risk free return usually associated with return on government bonds, plus(ii) a premium for additional risk. There are two sources of risk which affect the
risk premium :
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(1) the additional risk undertaken by investing in private securities rather than
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government securities.(2) The risk of buying equity stock rather than bond of a private firm.
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The first type of risk is calculated by taking a difference between the
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interest on firm's bonds and on government bonds. For the second type of risk, arule of thumb is used. Based on their judgement, the financial analysts have
come to believe that the return on firm's equity is about 3 to 5 per cent more than
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that on the debt. We may take its mid-point (i.e., 4 per cent) as an estimate of
premium for second type of risk. Now, suppose risk free rate is 10 per cent and
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firm's bond yield 15 per cent, the total risk premium (p) can be calculated as:p = (0.15 ? 0.10) + 0.04 =0.09
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The firm's cost of equity capital (Cg) (which is the sym of risk-free
return plus premium for additional risk) would, therefore, be
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124
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Ce = 0.10 + 0.09 = 0.19, or 19 per cent.Method II. Dividend Valuation Method. This is also known as Dividend
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Growth Model. The underlying logic of this method is the same as the internal
rate of return method of evaluating investments. According to this method, the
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cost of equity capital is that discount rate which equates the current market priceof the equity (P) with the sum of present value of expected dividends. That is,
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D1D2
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Dn
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P = --------- + ------------- + ......... ----------- + ........
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(1+Ce) (1+Ce)2 (1+Ce)n
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where D1, D2 ..... are dividends expected during each time period (1,2,...) and
Cg is the cost of equity or the discount rate.
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The basic problem here is that all the shareholders would have
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different expectations. This method of calculating the cost of equitywould, therefore, need an assumption that all investors have exactly
similar dividend expectations. Another problem relates to the
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determination of future stream of expected dividends. In order to
overcome this problem, it has been suggested that we should assume a
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constant growth rate in dividend. Let D0 be the current dividend, Dn bethe dividend in year n, and g be the constant growth rate of dividend.
Then,
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Dn = D0 (1+g)n--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
D0(1+g) D0 (1+g)2
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D0(1+g)n
Therefore
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P = ----------- + ------------- + ......... ------------ + ........
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(1+Ce) (1+Ce)2
(1+Ce)n
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125This being a geometric series we can write it as
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D0 (1+g)
1
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(1+g)
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P = ---------------- + ------------ = D0 -----------
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(1+Ce)
(1+g) (Ce ? g)
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1 - -------
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(1+Ce)
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D0(1+g)
D1
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Ce = ---------------- + g = ------- + g
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P
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P
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Though this method is scientific, one is not sure how to determine thegrowth rate of dividend (g).
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Method III: Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM). This approach is based on
the principle that risk and return of an investment are positively correlated--
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more risky the investment, higher are the desired returns. This modelemphasizes not only the risk differential between equity (or common stock) and
government bond but also risk differential among various common stocks.
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The P coefficient is used as a risk-index. It measures relative risk among
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stocks. The beta coefficient may be defined as "the ratio of variability in returnon a given stock to variability in return for all stocks," The P is calculated by
regression analysis, using regression equation k a
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m
a
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i = + ki , where ki is thereturn on equity of firm a in the ith period and k m
i is the return on all equity in
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the market in the ith period. The estimated value of is known as the beta
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126coefficient. A beta coefficient of value 1.0 means the stack's return is as volatile
or risky as the market's, > 1 and < 1 means the stock's return are more
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volatile and less volatile respectively compared to the return on total stockmarket portfolio.
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In this model the cost of equity capital (re) is:--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
re = Rf + (rm- Rf)
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where, Rf refers to risk free rate and r^ to return on market portfolio. Here costof equity capital is composed of two components : (1) the risk-free rate (Rf), and
(2) the weighted risk component where (rm ? Rf) refers to the overall risk
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premium, while the risk associated with the firm in question () is used as
weights.
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Cost of Retained Earnings
The part of income which a firm is left with after paying interest on debt capital
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and dividend to its shareholders is called retained earnings. These also involve
cost in the sense that by withholding the distribution of part of income to
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shareholders the firms is denying them the opportunity to invest these fundselsewhere and earn income. In this sense the cost of retained earnings is the
opportunity cost.
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It must be noted that retaining the earnings is equal to forcing the
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shareholders to increase their equity position in the firm by that amount. Butretained earnings are cheaper when it is realised that shareholders would have to
pay personal tax on the additional dividends, if distributed. Retained earnings
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avoid the payment of personal income tax on dividends and the brokerage fee
connected with any reinvestment. However, the amount to be paid as personal
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127
income tax differs from shareholder to shareholder, depending upon the tax
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bracket to which he belongs. Thus, before-tax cost of retained earnings (Cre) and
before-tax cost of equity capital (Ce) are equal; but once the impact of tax is also
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included then the cost of retained earnings is less than the cost of equity capital,the difference being the personal income tax. For example, assume that the
company has Rs. 100 of retained earnings and that there is a uniform personal
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income tax rate of 30 per cent. This means that if to shareholders are distributed
Rs. 100 of retained earnings, their income would in fact increase by Rs. 70 (=
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Rs. 100 - Rs. 30). In other words, the after-tax opportunity cost of retainedearnings is Rs. 70. Or, the cost of retained earnings is about 70% of the cost of
equity capital.
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Though the cost of retained earnings is always lower than cost of equity
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capital, a company can depend upon this source of finance only to the extent ofavailability of funds and willingness of shareholders. The cost of retained
earnings can be stated with the help of the following formula :
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E ( 1 ? Tp)
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Cre = ------------------- x 100
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MPwhere, Cre is the cost of retained earnings; E is the earnings per equity; Tp is the
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personal income tax; and MP is the market price of the share.
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Weighted Average Cost of CapitalCost of capital does not refer to the cost of some specific source in the
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financial decision-making. It should be the over- all cost of all sources and we
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128should consider the weighted cost of capital. Weights are given in proportion to
each source of funds in the capital structure ; then weighted average cost of
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capital is calculated.For calculating the weighted average cost of capital, we should know the
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capital structure of the company. Let us assume that the proposed capital
structure of a company after new financing would be as follows :
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Equity capital ...25 per cent
Debt capital
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...
50
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"Preference capital ...
10
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"
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Retained earnings ...15
"
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100%
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Secondly, we should calculate the cost of different types of capital stated
above, before-tax in the manner in which we studied so far.
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Suppose the firm has calculated the cost of each source of capital before-
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tax as follows :Item
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Cost
Equity capital
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... 24 per centDebt capital
... 8
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"
Preference capital ... 23
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"Retained earnings ... 19
"
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with these figures, the weighted average cost of capital is calculated for the
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company as shown in the following Table.--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
129
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TABLEType of Capital
Proportion
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in Before-tax cost of (2) x (3) (WX)
the new capital capital (X)
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structure (W)(1)
(2)
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(3)
(4)
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Equity capital25
24
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600
Debt. Capital
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508
400
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Preference capital
10
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23230
Retained earnings
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15
19
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285W = 100
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WX = 1515
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The formula for the weighted cost of capital before-tax is :
WX / W
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=1515 / 100
=
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15.15%
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The weighted average cost of capital in the above imaginary
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illustration is 15.12 per cent, before-tax.
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After-tax cost of capital = Before-tax cost (1 -- tax-rate).
Assuming the tax-rate as 55% after-tax cost of capital comes to :
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= 15.15 (1 - 0.55)
= 15.15 x 0.45%
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= 6.817% (or) 6.82%--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
This average cost of capital provides us a measure of the
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minimum rate of return which the proposed investment must earn to becomeacceptable.
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130
All business decisions relating to capital budgeting and assessment of
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cost of capital are made under conditions of uncertainty. The management
cannot ignore the risks and uncertainties associated .with capital budgeting.
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Capital budgeting is influenced by many factors like the industrial policy of thegovernment, location pattern, government's policy on investments, benefits of
tax incentives and the availability of inputs.
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PROBLEMS AND KEY
2) A firm finances all its investments by 40 per cent debt and 60 per cent equity.
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The estimated required rate of return on equity is 20 per cent after-taxes and thatof the debt is 8 per cent after-taxes. The firm is considering an investment
proposal costing Rs 40,000 with an expected return that will last forever. What
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amount (in rupees) must the proposal yield per year so that the market price of
the share does not change? Show calculations to prove your point.
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Solution: The minimum overall required rate of return is:Debt 0.40x0.08
=
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0.032
Equity 0.60x0.20 =
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0.120Weighted average
0.152
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Thus, the investment proposal earn 0.152 X Rs 40,000 = Rs 6,080 per year.
Annual return before taxes Rs
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6,080Less: interest 0.08 x 0.40 x.Rs 40,000 1,280
Return on equity
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Rs
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4,800After-tax rate of return on equity:
Rs 4,800 - (0.60 x Rs 40,000)
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Us 4,800 Rs 24,000= 0.20
3) A Ltd intends to issue new equity shares. It's present equity shares are being
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sold in the market at Rs 125 a share. The company's past record regardingpayment of dividends is as follows:
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131
1984:10.70%; 1985:11.45%; 1986:12.25%; 1987:13.11%; 1988:14.03%.
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The floatation costs are estimated at 3% of the current selling price of the shares.You are required to calculate:
(a) Growth rate in dividends.
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(b) Cost of funds raised by issue of equity shares assuming that the growth rate
as calculated under (a) above will continue for ever.
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(c) Cost of new equity shares.Solution:
(i) Growth rate in dividends:
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The amount of dividends has increased from 10.70 at the end of1984 to 14.03 at the end of 1988 giving a compound factor of 1.3112, (i.e.,
14.03/10.70).
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By looking to the "compound sum of one rupee table" in the lineof 4 years, one can find that the compound rate is that of 7%. Hence the growth
rate in dividends is 7%.
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(ii) Cost of equity:
Ke = D / MP + g
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Since the dividend has been growing at the rate of 7% every year,
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the dividend expected by the investors immediately after the end of 1988 is
likely to be 15.01% (i.e., 14.03% + 7% of 14.03%). The cost of equity capital
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can now be determined as follows:Ke = 15.01/125 x 100 + 7%
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= 12.01% + 7% = 19.01%.
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(iii) Cost of new equity shares:
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Ke = D / NP + g
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132= 15.01/(125 ? 3.75) x 100 + 7%
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= 15.01/121.25 x 100 + 7%
= 12.38% + 7% = 19.38%.)
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4) The following is an extract from the financial statement of XY Ltd.
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(Rs. lakhs)Operating Profit
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105
Less; Interest on debentures
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33
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--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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72
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Less : Income Tax (50%)--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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36Net profit
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36
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Equity share capital (shares of Rs.10 each)
200
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Reserves and surplus
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100
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15% non-convertible debentures (of Rs.100 each) 220--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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520The market price per equity share is Rs. 12 and per debenture Rs. 93.75.
(i) What is the earning per share ?
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(ii) What is the percentage cost of capital to the company for the debenture
funds and the equity ?
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Solution:i) Calculation of Earnings Per Share
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Profit after tax
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Earnings per share (EPS) = --------------------------------- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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No. of equity shares
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36,00,000
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or EPS
= -------------------- = Rs.1.80
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133
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20,00,000
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(ii) Computation of Percentage Cost of Capital
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(a) Cost of Equity Capital :Cost of Equity (Ke)= D / MP
where, D = Expected earnings per share
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and MP = Market price per share
Or Ke (%) = 1.80/12 x 100 = 15%
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(b) Cost of Debenture Funds;At Book Value At Market Price
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(Rs. lakhs) (Rs. lakhs)
Value of 15% Debentures
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220.00 206.25
Interest Cost for the year
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33.00 33.00
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Less: Tax at 50%--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
16.50 16.5Q
Interest cost after tax
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16.50 16.50Cost of Debenture Fund (%) 16.50/220 x 100 16.50/206.25x 100
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= 7.5%
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= 8%8) A firm whose cost of capital is 10% is considering two mutually exclusive
projects A and B, the cash flows of which are as below:
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Year
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Project A
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Project B
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Rs.
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Rs.
0
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-50000
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-800001
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62500--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
96170
Suggest which project should be taken up using (i) net present value method and
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(ii) the internal rate of return method.134
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Solution
i) CALCUALTION OF NET PRESENT VALUE (NPV)
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Year
P.V. Factor
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Project AProject B
Cash flow Present
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Cash flow Present
(Rs.)
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value (Rs.) (Rs.)value (Rs.)
0
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1
-50000
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-50000-80000
-80000
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1
.909
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6250056812
96170
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87418
Net present value (NPV)
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6812
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7418
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ii) CALCUALTION OF INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN (IRR)Project A
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Project B
P.V. Factor=initial outlay /annual cash 50000/62500=.8
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80000/96170=.83flow
25%
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20%
IRR (using P.V. tables)
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Suggestions. According to the net present value method,
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investment in project B is better because of its higher positive NPV; but
according to the IRR method project A is a better investment because of higher
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internal rate of return. Thus, there is a conflict in ranking of the two mutuallyexclusive proposals according to the two methods. Under these circumstances,
we would suggest to take up project B which gives a higher net present value
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because in doing so the firm will be liable to maximize the wealth of the
shareholders.
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135
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Summary--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Cost of capital plays an important role in the capital budgeting
decisions. It determines the acceptability of all investment opportunities
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regardless of the techniques employed to judge the financial viability of aproject. Cost of capital serves as capitalization rate used to determine
capitalisaiton of a new concern. With the help of this very rate realworth of
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various investments of the firm can be evaluated. Cost of capital provides useful
guidelines in determining optimal capital structure of a firm. It refers to the
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minimum rate of return of a firm which must earn on its investment so that themarket value of the company's equity share may not fall. The determination of
the firm's cost of capital is important from the point of view of both capital
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budgeting as well as capital structure planning decisions.
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In order to compute the overall cost of capital, the manager of
funds has to take the following steps: i) To determine the type of funds to be
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raised and their share in the total capitalization of the firm, ii) To ascertain the
cost of each type of funds, and iii) To calculate the combined cost of capital if
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the firm by assigning weight to each type of funds in terms of quantum of fundsso raised.
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The cost of the different sources of financing represents the
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components of continued cost. Each firm has ideal capital mix of varioussources of funds; external sources (debt, preferred stock and equity stock) and
internal sources (reserves and surplus). Determining of cost of capital involves
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relating the expected outcome of the specific source of capital to the market or
book value of that source. Expected income in thin context comprises interest,
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discount on debt, dividends, EPS or similar other variables most suitable to theparticular case. The computation of the cost of capital involves two steps. i) The
computation of the different elements of the cost in terms of the cost of the
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136
different source of finance, and ii) the calculation of the overall cost by
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combining the specific cost into a composite cost. Weights are given in
proportion to each source of funds in the capital structure; then weighted
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average cost of capital is calculated.--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Key words
Cost of capital. It is the rate of return the firm must earn on its assets to justify
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the using and acquiring of investible resources.Capital asset pricing model (CAPM). This model is based on the premise that
degree of risk and returns are related. Relative risks among stocks is measured
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using the beta coefficient. coefficient > 1 means the variation in returns on that
stock is greater than that of the average stock. coefficient is a necessary
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element in determining a stock's required rate of return.Dividend valuation method. According to this method, the return required by
the investor is equal to the current dividend yield on the common stock plus an
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expected growth rate for dividend payments. It is also known as dividend
growth model.
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Weighted average cost of capital. Weights are given in proportion to eachsource of funds in the capital structure; then weighted average cost of capital is
calculated.
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137
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REVIEW QUESTIONS1) What is cost of capital?
2) How is cost of capital determined?
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3) How do you calculate cost of debt?
4) What are the various concepts of cost of capital? Why should they be
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distinguished in financial management?5) How is the cost of debt computed? How does it differ from the cost of
preference capital?
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6) The equity capital is cost free.' Do you agree? Give reasons.
7) `Debt is the cheapest source of funds.' Explain.
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8) What is weighted average cost of capital?9) How is the weighted average cost of capital calculated?
10) Examine the importance of cost of capital.
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11) What are the problems involved in determination of cost of capital?
12) How will you calculate cost of preference share capital?
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13) How will calculate cost of retained earnings?*****
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138
UNIT III
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CAPITAL STRUCTURE THEORIES
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LESSON OUTLINE
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Introduction
Financial leverage
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Measures of financial leverageOperating leverage
Measures of operating leverage
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Combined effect of operating and financial leverage
Capital structure theories
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Analysing alternate financial plansCapital structure planning
Composition of capital structure
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Capital structure frame work
FRICT analysis
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Capital structure and value of a firmNet income approach
Weighted average cost of capital
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Net operating income approach
Traditional approach
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Modigliani and Miller's propositionTaxes and capital structure
Capital structure determinants in practice
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Some frequently asked questions
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139LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you should be able to
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- explain what is financial and operating leverages and their concepts
- discuss alternate measures of leverages
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- understand and appreciate the risk and return implications of leverages- analyse the combined effects of financial and operating leverages
- understand capital structure and value of a company and their
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relationship
- understand and appreciate MM proposition
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- explain the interest tax shield advantage of debt as well as itsdisadvantages in terms of cost of financial distress
- study the capital structure determinants in detail and in practice
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140Introduction
Any business or a company or firm requires capital to acquire assets. These
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assets could also be obtained with loans from financial institutions. Thecompany operates those assets to earn economic returns by fulfilling customer
needs.
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The capital structure decision centres on the allocation between debt and
equity in financing the business needs. An efficient mixture of capital reduces
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the price of capital. Lowering the cost of capital increases net economic returnswhich ultimately increase business value.
An unleveled business uses only equity capital. A levered business uses a
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mix of equity and various forms of other liabilities.
Apart from deciding on a target capital structure, a business must
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manage its capital structure. Imperfections or opportunities in capital markets,taxes and other practical factors influence the managing of capital structure.
Imperfections may suggest a capital structure less than the theoretical optimal.
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Operation of assets and the business's financing of those assets jointly
dictate its (business) value. Understanding why the current proportion of debt in
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the capital structure lowers the cost of capital and increases stock price holdsattention.
Basic characteristics of an unlevered company (total equity and no debt
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financing). In such a company there are no external creditors. Only the
shareholders as a group have a claim on the expected net income and they bear
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the risk associated with the expected net income.Therefore the total risk faced by such a company is business risk and the
risk associated with the tax environment.
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141In a levered company, the creditors are very carefully organized and they
have specified claims against a company's cash flows during normal operations
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as well as during bankruptcy. Equity holders are always last in line, behind all
creditors.
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The position of each claimant in the line affects the riskiness of theircash flows. Those first in the line claim the most certain cash flows ? and their
removal of the most certain cash flows increases the risk of the cash flows that
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remain for those behind them
Creditors and equity holders are clever. Claimants further back in the
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line demand higher returns to compensate themselves for the additional risk theybear. Thus, shareholders require higher returns for the added financial risk of
creditors.
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However, shareholders know another very important facet about debt;
they can make money from its use. In fact, the focal point of capital structure
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theory hinges on shareholders recognizing that debt use can add to their returns.The use of appropriate amount of debt adds value if the company enjoys a tax
deduction for interest payments.
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Thus moving away from entire equity (unlevered) to part equity and part
debt (levered) financing will result in the following fruitful journey for the
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shareholders.- Corporate debt increases ? financial risk increase
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- Total risk increase since financial risk is increasing
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- Equity decreases ? the number of shares of stock decreases ? thecompany does not need as much equity financing because debt is
replacing equity in the capital structure
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142
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- Expected earnings per share increase since fewer shares exist and theexpected tax benefits of using debt contribute to the EPS
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Hence making crucial decision on the capital structure ? either entire
equity or part equity and part debt financing ? is very vital for the development
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and growth of any business organisation.We shall now make an attempt various issues connected with the
leveraging, theories developed on leveraging and also look at determining the
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ideal capital structure in practice.
Should a business increase or reduce the number of units it is producing?
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Should it rely more or less heavily on borrowed money? The answer dependsupon how a change would affect risk and return.
Operating leverage is the name given to the impact on operating income
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of a change in the level of output. Financial leverage is the name given to the
impact on returns of a change in the extent to which the firm's assets are
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financed with borrowed money.Despite the fact that both operating leverage and financial leverage are
concepts that have been discussed and analyzed for decades, there is substantial
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disparity in how they are defined and measured by academics and practitioners.
Financial leverage
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The use of fixed charges (or interest) bearing sources of funds, such as debt andpreference capital along with the owners' equity in the capital structure of a
company is described as financial leverage or gearing or trading on equity.
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143The use of term trading on equity is derived from the fact that the debt is raised
on the basis of the owner's equity - the equity is traded upon. Since the debt
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provider has limited participation in the company's profits he will insist on to
protect his earnings and protect values represented by ownership equity.
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Financial leverage is the name given to the impact on returns of a changein the extent to which the firm's assets are financed with borrowed money.
The financial leverage is employed by a company only when it is
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confident of earning more return on fixed charge funds than their costs.
In case the company earns more then the derived surplus will increase
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the return on the owner's equityIn case the company earns less on the fixed charge funds when compared
to their costs, the resultant deficit will decrease the return on owner's equity
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The rate of return on the owner's equity is thus levered above or below
the rate of return on total assets
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Thus a simple logic can be arrived at as under. If all other things remainsame, lower the amount borrowed, lower the interest, lower will be the profit
and greater the amount borrowed, lower the interest, greater will be the profit
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Financial leverage reflects the amount of debt used in the capital
structure of the firm. Because debt carries a fixed obligation of interest
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payments, we have the opportunity to greatly magnify our results at variouslevels of operations.
The degree of financial leverage is computed as the percentage change in
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earnings available to common stockholders associated with a given percentage
change in earnings before interest and taxes.
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144
Thus financial leverage is a commitment to fixed debt charges payment
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obligation undertaken by a company.Measures of financial leverage
Debt ratio is the ratio of debt to the total available funds of the company, i.e.
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sum of owner's equity and outside debt. The owner's equity can be measured in
terms of either book value or the market value. In some countries it is also
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named as leverage ratio. It is defined down traditional lines as the ratio ofexternal debt to total equity
Debt equity ratio is the ratio of debt to the total equity. Here too, the equity can
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be measured in terms of either book value or the market value
The market value of equity in debt ratio and debt equity ratio is more
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appropriate, because market values normally reflect the current attitude of theinvestors, in normal markets.
If the shares of the company are not traded in the stock exchanges (or
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markets) or are not actively traded in the stock exchanges then it would be
difficult to get correct information on market values.
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The debt ratio and debt equity ratio are also known as capital gearing ratios.Interest coverage is the ratio of earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT) to the
interest liability. This is known as coverage ratio i.e. debt coverage ratio or debt
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service coverage ratio.
The reciprocal of interest coverage that is interest divided by EBIT is known as
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income gearing.Degree of financial leverage
The degree of financial leverage (DFL) is defined as the percentage change in
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earnings per share [EPS] that results from a given percentage change in earnings
before interest and taxes (EBIT), and it is calculated as follows
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145
DFL = Percentage change in EPS divided by Percentage change in EBIT
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This calculation produces an index number which if, for example, it is
1.43, this means that a 100 percent increase in EBIT would result in a 143
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percent increase in earnings per share. (It makes no difference mathematically ifreturn is calculated on a per share basis or on total equity, as in the solution of
the equation EPS cancels out.)
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When the economic conditions are good and the company's Earnings
before interest and tax is increasing, its EPS increases faster with debt in the
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capital structure.The degree of financial leverage is expressed as the percentage change in
EPS due to a given percentage change in EBIT
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DFL = % change in EPS / % change in EBIT
An alternate formula to calculate the degree of financial leverage is as
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follows:DFL = EBIT / (EBIT ? Int) = EBIT/PBT = 1 + INT/PBT
Financial leverage on the one hand increases shareholders' return and on
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the other, it also increases their risk. For a given level of EBIT, EPS varies more
with more debt.
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Thus financial leverage is a double edged weapon. It may assure you ahigher return but with a higher risk. Normally, a trade off between the return and
risk will be arrived at to determine the appropriate amount of debt.
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Let us examine this with an example
A company's expected EBIT is Rs.150 with a standard deviation of
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Rs.50. This implies that the earnings could vary between Rs.100 and Rs.200 onan average.
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146
Suppose that the company has some debt on which it incurs Rs.50 as interest.
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Now the shareholders' expected earnings will be Rs.150 less Rs.50 = Rs.100
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(taxes are ignored). Standard deviation will remain unchanged at Rs.50Now the shareholders earnings will on an average vary within a range of Rs.50
and Rs.150.
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If EBIT is Rs.50, then the shareholders may not earn anything. If it is less than
Rs.50, their earnings may be negative.
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In extreme situations if the company is unable to pay interest and principal onthe debt borrowed, its very existence may be threatened by the insolvency
proceedings that may be initiated by the creditors.
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Operating leverage
High fixed costs and low variable costs provide the greater percentage change in
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profits both upward and downward. If a high percentage of a firm's costs arefixed, and hence do not decline when demand decreases, this increases the
company's business risk. This factor is called operating leverage.
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If a high percentage of a firm's total costs are fixed, the firm is said to have a
high degree of operating leverage. The degree of operating leverage (DOL) is
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defined as the percentage change in operating income (or EBIT) that resultsfrom a given percentage change in sales....In effect, the DOL is an index number
which measures the effect of a change in sales on operating income, or EBIT
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When fixed costs are very large and variable costs consume only a small
percentage of each dollar of revenue, even a slight change in revenue will have a
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large effect on reported profits.147
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Operating leverage, then, refers to the magnified effect on operating earnings
(EBIT) of any given change in sales...And the more important, proportionally,
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are fixed costs in the total cost structure, the more marked is the effect on EBIT.One of the most dramatic examples of operating leverage is in the airline
industry, where a large portion of total costs are fixed
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The higher the proportion of fixed costs to total costs the higher the operating
leverage of the firm
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Since a fixed expense is being compared to an amount which is a function of afluctuating base (sales), profit-and-loss results will not bear a proportionate
relationship to that base. These results in fact will be subject to magnification,
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the degree of which depends on the relative size of fixed costs vis-a-vis the
potential range of sales volume. This entire subject is referred to as operating
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leverage.Thus, in general terms, operating leverage refers to the use of fixed costs
in the operation of a firm.
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Operating leverage is defined as the percentage change in the earnings
before interest and taxes relative to a given percentage change in sales.
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The degree of operating leverage is also defined as the change in acompany's earnings before interest and tax due to change in sales. Since
variable costs change in direct proportion of sales and fixed costs remain
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constant, the variability in EBIT when sales change is caused by fixed costs.
Operating leverage refers to the use of fixed costs in the operation of a
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firm. A firm will not have operating leverage if its ratio of fixed costs to total148
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costs is nil. For such a firm, a given change in sales would produce samepercentage change in the operating profit or earnings before interest and taxes.
Higher the fixed cost, higher the variability in EBIT for a given change
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in sales. Other things remaining the same, companies with higher operating
leverage (because of higher fixed costs) are most risky.
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Thus operating leverage increases with fixed costs. Operating profit of ahighly leveraged (operating) firm would increase at a faster rate for any given
increase in sales.
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Operating leverage intensifies the effect of cyclicality on a company's
earnings. Operating leverage is the name given to the impact on operating
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income of a change in the level of output.Operating leverage affects a firm's operating profit (EBIT) while
financial leverage affects profit after tax or the earnings per share.
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Thus operating leverage is a commitment to fixed production charges
payment obligation undertaken by a company.
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Measures of operating leverage
Operating leverage measures the effect of fixed costs on the firm, and that the
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degree of operating leverage (DOL) equals:
DOL = q(p - v) divided by q(p - v) ? f
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where: q = quantity, p = price per unit, v = variable cost per unit, f = total fixedcosts
that is:
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Degree of operating leverage = Sales revenue less total variable cost divided by
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sales revenue less total cost
Operating leverage can also be defined as the impact of a change in
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revenue on profit or cash flow. It arises, whenever a firm can increase itsrevenues without a proportionate increase in operating expenses. Cash allocated
to increasing revenue, such as marketing and business development
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expenditures, are quickly consumed by high fixed expenses.
Positive operating leverage occurs at the point at which revenue exceeds
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the total amount of fixed costs.Thus, the degree of operating leverage (DOL) is defined as the
percentage change in the earnings before interest and taxes relative to a given
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percentage change in sales.
Thus, DOL = (% change in EBIT) / (% change in sales)
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DOL = (changes in EBIT / EBIT) / (changes in sales / sales)An alternate formula for calculating DOL is as follows
DOL = Contribution / EBIT = 1 + Fixed Cost / EBIT
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Combined effect of operating and financial leverage
The combined effect of two leverages can be quite significant for the earnings
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available to ordinary shareholders. They cause wide fluctuation in earnings pershare for a given change in sales.
If a company were to employ a high level of operating and financial
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leverage, even a very small change in the level of sales will cause significant
effect on the earning per share.
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Thus the degrees of operating and financial leverages can be combined
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to ensure the effect of total leverage on earning per share due to a very smallchange in sales.
The degree of combined leverage is expressed in the following manner
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DCL = (% change in EBIT / % change in sales) x (% change in EPS / % change
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in EBIT)DCL = % change in EPS / % change in sales
Another way of expression of DCL is
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DCL = Contribution / (EBIT ? INT)
= Contribution / PBT = 1 + (Int + Fixed cost) / PBT
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DCL = (EBIT + Fixed costs) / PBTClarity in regard to operating and financial leverage is important because
these concepts are important to businesses. Small and medium-sized businesses
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often have difficulty using the highly sophisticated quantitative methods large
companies use.
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Fortunately, the simple break-even graph is simple and easy to interpret;yet it can provide a significant amount of information. The algebra necessary to
compute operating and financial leverage, too, is not very complex.
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Unfortunately, it comes in a several guises; not all equally easy to understand or
equally useful.
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Capital structure theoriesA company can raise the required finance through two principal sources, namely
equity and debt.
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151Therefore, a question should arise - what should be the proportion of debt and
equity in the capital structure of the company? This can be put in a different
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manner ? what should be the financial leverage of the company?
The company should decide as to how to divide its cash flows into two
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broad components ? a fixed component earmarked to meet the debt obligationand the balance portion that genuinely belongs to the equity shareholders.
Any financial management should ensure maximization of the
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shareholders' wealth. Therefore an important question that should be raised and
answered is what is the relationship between capital structure and value of the
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firm? Or what is the relationship between capital structure and cost of capital?As cost of capital and firm value are inversely related, this assumes
greater importance. If the cost of capital is very low, then the value of the
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company is maximized and if the cost of capital is very high, then the value of
the company is minimized.
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Some question this relationship; according to them there is norelationship whatsoever between capital structure and value of the company.
Others agree that the financial leverage has a positive impact and effect on the
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value of the firm up to a point and it would be negative thereafter. However
some strongly hold the view that greater the financial leverage, greater the value
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of the firm, when other things remain equal.Analysing alternate financial plans
Normally capital budgeting decisions are made for replacement of worn out or
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obsolete machineries. In case the machineries have not worn out but they have
not contributing optimum production quantities, such replacement decisions
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may also be made.Sometimes capital budgeting decisions are made for modernization of
the plant and machinery. They are also made for replacing manually operated
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machineries with totally automated machineries. Most of the times, the plant and
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machinery may need latest technological up gradation.
If they are not technologically up graded, the companies may lose out to
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those companies which have gone for latest generation technologies as it isalways observed latest technology normally result in cost of production going
down and naturally the companies which opt for latest technology would be able
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to better quality products at comparatively lower cost.
Many times companies will need to made capital budgeting decisions to
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take care of their expansion programmes to meet growing existing marketrequirements. They are also made to penetrate into newer markets ? regionally
and globally.
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Having achieved name and fame in the market with their quality
products, companies may take up diversification programmes to enlarge their
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business operations. Capital budgeting decisions are made for them also.The funds needed to meet these capital budgeting decisions can be met
through either internal funds generated (by retaining earnings in the previous
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years) or through debts and financing by banks and financial institutions.
Sometimes they are also met through raising fresh external equity
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These capital structure decisions will also require reviewing and analysing- existing capital structure
- desired debt-equity mix
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- pay out policy
Moving over to desired debt ? equity mix of any capital structure decisions,
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a company will need looking into its effect on future returns and effect on risk,both of which will impact the cost of the capital.
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The cost of capital decides the optimum capital structure and this will facilitateevaluating the value of the firm.
Capital structure planning
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Companies which do not plan their capital structure may prosper in the short run
as they develop as a result of financial decisions taken by the manager without
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any proper policy and planning. In these companies, the financing decisions arereactive and they evolve in response to the operating decisions.
But ultimately they face considerable difficulties in raising funds to
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finance their activities. With an unplanned capital structure, they will fail to
economise use of funds. And this will impact the company's earning capacity
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considerably.Our finance manager should be in a position to plan a suitable or
optimum capital structure for a company. As we have seen, an optimum
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structure is one that can maximize the value of the firm in the market.
In practice the establishment of an optimum capital structure of a
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company is indeed a difficult one. It is different and varying among industriesand among companies in the same industry. A number of elements and factors
influence such a capital structure of a company.
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These elements and factors are highly psychological, complex and
qualitative and they do not always follow same pattern and theory. That is why,
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given the same company, different decision makers will decide differently oncapital structure, as they will have different judgmental background.
Composition of capital structure
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The following are some important components of a company's capital structure
and they will therefore need proper analysis, consideration, evaluation and
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154
Capital mix
It consists of the equity and debt capital. The debt capital which can be raised
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from a variety of sources like banks and financial institutions, friends and
relatives, etc forms an important item of the capital mix.
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The percentage of debt capital to the total capital mix will depend on theextent of dependence of debt affordable by the company. And this dependence
will in turn depend on the risks undertaken by the company. The lenders will on
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their part consider these risks before lending their resources to the company.
Issues like reasonableness of the debt terms, its mechanism and level and
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the policies, systems and procedures of the company will also be looked into.Ratios like debt ratio, debt service coverage ratio, etc will be handy and helpful
in framing up the action plan on capital mix. Cash flow and funds flow
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statements will also help one in analyzing the capital mix for decision making.
Terms and conditions
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A debt can be acquired with many choices on hand. The interest thereon can beeither on fixed or floating rate basis. In the case of equity, the investors would
prefer regular return by way of dividends.
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The company will have to decide its preference either for payment of
interest or payment of dividends. In case debt capital can be raised at a lower
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rate of interest than the return on such borrowed capital, then it would beadvisable to prefer debt capital to ensure maximum return for the owners.
Again, the company's expectation of future interest rates will be yet
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another consideration. If the future interest rates are to remain neutral and if the
company's earnings are at a growing pace, then it may be ideal to go in for debt
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capital.Therefore, the company's choice will depend on the management's
assessment of future interest rates and its earnings potential. Of course, the
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155
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management will take into account hedging instruments available at its disposalfor managing such interest rate exposures.
There are certain covenants in the loan documentation like what the
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company can do and cannot do. And these may inhibit the freedom of the
management of the company. They normally cover payment of dividends,
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disposal of fixed assets, raising of fresh debt capital, etc. How these covenantsprohibit and limit the company's future strategies including competitive
positioning.
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Selection of currency of the debt
The currency of the debt capital is yet another factor to reckon with. Now a
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days, a well run company can easily have access to international debt marketsthrough external commercial borrowings.
Such recourse to international markets enables the company to globalize
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its operations. However, the most important consideration in the selection of the
appropriate currency in which such international loans are granted and accepted
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is the exchange risk factor. Of course, the management can have access toforeign exchange hedging instruments like forward contracts, options, swaps,
etc.
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Profile and priority
The profile of the instruments used in the capital mix may differ from each
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other. Equity is the permanent capital. Under debt, there are short terminstruments like commercial papers and long term instruments like term loans.
In the same manner the priorities of the instruments also differ.
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Repayment of equity will have the least priority when the company is winding
up ? either on its own or by legal force.
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156
Instruments such as hire purchase or leasing are quite safe from the
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provider's (lender's) point of view. The assets backing such instruments providethe protection or safety net to the lenders.
Therefore secured debts are relatively safe and have priority over
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unsecured debt in the event of company closure.
Normally the profile of the assets and liabilities of the company do not
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match. The company is deemed to have obtained risk neutral position bymatching the maturities (profile) of the various assets and liabilities. That is why
it is always advised that short term liabilities should be used to acquire current
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assets and long term liabilities for fixed assets.
However in practice, the companies do not exactly match the profile of
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sources and uses of funds.Various financial instruments
Simple instruments or innovative instruments can be availed to raise funds
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required.
Financial innovative instruments are used to attract investors and they
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are normally associated with reduction in capital cost. A company to reduce itsimmediate funding cost can consider issue of convertible debentures at a lower
interest rate. This way the investors can take up equity holding in the company
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which is not otherwise available directly at a comparatively cheaper cost. For
the company too funds are available initially till the conversion date at a lesser
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interest rate.A company can also issue non convertible debentures at a higher interest
rate when compared with convertible debentures, which may carry a lower
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interest rate as above.
Similarly a company can attempt raising required funds at a lesser cost
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through cross currency swaps in the international markets. In this, the company157
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which may be having competitive advantage in one currency and in one market
can exchange the principal with another currency of its choice and in another
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market and with another corporate which has an exactly matching and oppositerequirement. Such swaps are gaining popularity in the market place
Therefore the company and its management have to continuously
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innovate instruments and securities to reduce the final cost. An innovation once
introduced may not attract new investors. There is also a possibility and the
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other companies may further fine tune the instruments and securities and makethem more innovative and attractive.
Therefore financial innovation is a continuous process.
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Various target groups in financial market
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The different target groups in any financial market could be individualinvestor, institutional investors, private companies and corporates, public
(government held or widely held) companies and corporates etc.
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A company can raise its required capital from any of these or all of these
segments.
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A company can issue short term paper like commercial paper orcertificate of deposits. It has also the option of raising the funds through public
deposits.
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How these various target groups can be accessed? What are their
expectations and requirements? What are the target groups the company is
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proposing to approach for its requirements and why?These are some of the immediate important questions a company may
have to consider while deciding on the target group
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158
Capital structure frame work
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A financial capital structure frame work can be structured and evaluated fromvarious perspectives.
From the company's point of view, the following may merit consideration
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- Return from investment
- Risk associated with the investment
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- Value of the investment at different points of time in its life cycleFrom the investor's point of view, the following may pose serious questions
- control of investment
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- flexibility offered by the company
- feasibility of the investment
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Therefore by balancing all these considerations, a sound capital structure canbe worked out.
One such analysis is the FRICT analysis. It is used to help answer a firm's
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financing choices. The focus would be on the questions that we are trying to
answer and these questions and answers will provide the best choice for the
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company. The FRICT analysis does not cover other choices such aspostponement or cancellation of the project.
The four questions that are normally raised in FRICT analysis are
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- How much do we need
- When will we need it
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- Why ? what will it be used for- What sources are available
The FRICT frame work consists of Flexibility, Risk, Income, Control and
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Timing
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159
Flexibility
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First of all, the company should find out its debt capacity and the capital
structure so determined should be within this debt capacity. And this capacity
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should not be exceed at any cost and at any time. As we know, the debt capacitydepends on the company's ability to generate future cash flows. Only such cash
flows can facilitate prompt repayment ? principal and periodic interest payment
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? to the creditors. This cash flow also should leave some surplus to meet
evolving emergent situations. Thus the capital structure should be flexible
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enough to facilitate it to change its structure with minimum cost and delay dueto emerging situations.
Risk
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The variability in the company's operations throw open many risks. They may
arise due to the macroeconomic factors ? industry and company specific ? which
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may be beyond or within the company's scope. Any large dependence on debtwill therefore magnify the possible variance in the company owners' earnings
and at times may threaten the very existence or solvency of the company
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Income
Any debt acquired by the company to build up appropriate capital structure
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should result in the value addition to the company owners and it should beadvantageous by generating maximum returns to the company owners with
minimum additional cost (by way of payment of interest and other charges)
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Control
The preferred capital structure should not disturb the management control of the
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company. Therefore, beyond a certain level, the debt providers may insist formanagement control and this will be risky for the owners of the company. Hence
closely held companies are particularly vulnerable and therefore concerned with
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the dilution of control
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160Timing
The chosen capital structure should provide the following comforts
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- Feasibility- Freedom to implement current and future options
Therefore the progression of financing decision is very important in any
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capital structure framework as any current decision may influence or impact
future funding options
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Therefore our FRICT analysis provides a general framework formanaging and evaluating a company's capital structure. However within this
FRICT framework companies can provide comfort to the creditors depending on
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the particular individual characteristics of the company like affording flexibility,
control, etc. This is to provide a general adaptable framework for any company.
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Capital structure and value of a firmWe know there two main sources of finance available for a company (or a firm)
are debt and equity. However it is difficult to arrive at the exact or at least
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optimum proportion of debt and equity in the capital structure of a company.
Therefore, ascertaining the level of financial leverage is the primary task to be
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performed.The main objective of financial management is to maximize the owners'
(share holders') wealth and value. The key issues there fore are the relationship
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between capital structure and cost of capital.
We know given a certain level of earnings, the value of the company is
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maximized when the cost of capital is minimized. In the same vein the value ofthe company is minimized when the cost of capital is maximized. Therefore the
value of the company and the cost of capital are inversely related.
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There are many different arguments and view points as to how the
capital structure influences the value of the company. Some argue that financial
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161
leverage (use of debt capital) has a positive effect on the company value up to a
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point and negative thereafter. On the other extreme, few contend that there is no
relation between capital structure and value of the company. Many strongly
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believe that other things being equal, greater the leverage, greater will be thevalue of the company
The capital structure of a company will be planned and implemented
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when the company is formed and incorporated. The initial capital structure
would therefore be designed very carefully.
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The management of a company would set a target capital structure andthe subsequent financing decisions would be made with a view to achieve the
target capital structure. The management has also to deal with an existing capital
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structure. The company will need to fund or finance its activities continuously.
Every time a need arises for funds, the management will have to weigh the pros
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and cons of the various sources of finance and then select the advantageoussource keeping in view the target capital structure.
Thus capital structure decisions are a continuous one and they have to be
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made whenever the company needs additional finance.
Now let us explore the relationship between the financial leverage and
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cost of capital which is a contested issue in financial management.Assumptions
The relationship between a capital structure and cost of capital of a company can
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be better established and appreciated by considering the following assumptions
- There is no incidence of corporate / income / personal taxes
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- The company distributes all its earnings in a year by way of dividends toits shareholders
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162
- The investors have uniform subjective probability distribution of
operating income (EBIT) for each company
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- The operating income is expected to remain same ? no growth or no
decline ? over a period of time
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- Capital structure can be changed by a company without incurringtransaction costs with ease and comfort and instantaneously
The idea behind the above assumptions is to keep aside the influence of
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tax, dividend policy, risk perception, growth and market imperfections so that
the influence of financial leverage on cost of capital can be studied and
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sustained with greater clarity and focusTaking into the above assumptions, cost of debt, Rd can be arrived at as under
Rd = i / d
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= Annual interest charges divided by Market value of debt
If we assume the debt is perpetual, then Rd would become the cost of capital
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When the company pays out 100% of its earnings and when the earnings alsoremain constant for ever, then Re, the cost of equity would be
Re = P / E
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= Equity earnings divided by Market value of equity
When the market value of the company V is equal to Debt plus Equity,
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then Ra combined capitalization rate of the company would beRa = O / V
= Operating income divided by Market value of the firm
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Net income approach
Any company is said to have leveraged if it finances its assets through debt
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capital and equity capital. On the other hand, a company which finances itsassets entirely through equity capital is called an unlevered company.
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163
The value of equity of any company can be found out by discounting its
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net incomeV (value of equity) = E (net income) / K (cost of equity)
Similarly the value of a company's debt can be found out by discounting
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the value of interest on debt.
V (value of debt) = I (interest on debt) / K (cost of debt)
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The value of the company will be the sum value of value of equity andvalue of debt.
The company's overall cost of capital is called the weighted average cost
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of capital (detailed coverage is given below) And this can be found as under
We know,
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Value of the firm = value of its equity + value of its debtCompany's cost of capital = Net operating income / value of the firm
There is another way to calculate weighted average cost of capital.
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WACC = Cost of equity X equity weight + cost of debt X debt weight
Net income approach reveals that the cost of debt Rd, the cost of equity
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Re remain unchanged when Debt / Equity varies. The constancy of cost of debtand cost of equity with regard to D/E means that Ra, the average cost of capital
is measured as under
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Ra = Rd [D / (D+E)] + Re [E / (D+E)]
The average cost of capital Ra will decrease as D/E increases.
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Weighted average cost of capital
The weighted average cost of capital (WACC) is used in finance to measure a
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firm's cost of capital. It had been used by many firms in the past as a discount
rate for financed projects, since using the cost of the financing seems like a
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logical price tag to put on it164
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Companies raise money from two main sources: equity and debt. Thus the
capital structure of a firm comprises three main components: preferred equity,
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common equity and debt (typically bonds and notes). The WACC takes into
account the relative weights of each component of the capital structure and
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presents the expected cost of new capital for a firmThe formula
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The weighted average cost of capital is defined by
C = (E/K) y + (D/K) b (1 ? Xc)
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Where,K = D + E
The following table defines each symbol
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Symbol
Meaning
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UnitsC
weighted average cost of capital
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%
Y
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required or expected rate of return on equity, or %cost of equity
B
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required or expected rate of return on borrowings, %
or cost of debt
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Xccorporate tax rate
%
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D
total debt and leases
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currencyE
total equity and equity equivalents
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currency
K
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total capital invested in the going concerncurrency
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This equation describes only the situation with homogeneous equity and
debt. If part of the capital consists, for example, of preferred stock (with
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165
different cost of equity y), then the formula would include an additional term for
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each additional source of capital
How it works
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Since we are measuring expected cost of new capital, we should use themarket values of the components, rather than their book values (which can be
significantly different). In addition, other, more "exotic" sources of financing,
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such as convertible/callable bonds, convertible preferred stock, etc., would
normally be included in the formula if they exist in any significant amounts -
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since the cost of those financing methods is usually different from the plainvanilla bonds and equity due to their extra features
Sources of information
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How do we find out the values of the components in the formula for
WACC? First let us note that the "weight" of a source of financing is simply the
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market value of that piece divided by the sum of the values of all the pieces. Forexample, the weight of common equity in the above formula would be
determined as follows
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Market value of common equity / (Market value of common equity + Market
value of debt + Market value of preferred equity)
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So, let us proceed in finding the market values of each source offinancing (namely the debt, preferred stock, and common stock)
The market value for equity for a publicly traded company is simply the
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price per share multiplied by the number of shares outstanding, and tends to be
the easiest component to find
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The market value of the debt is easily found if the company has publiclytraded bonds. Frequently, companies also have a significant amount of bank
loans, whose market value is not easily found. However, since the market value
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of debt tends to be pretty close to the book value (for companies that have not
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166experienced significant changes in credit rating, at least), the book value of debt
is usually used in the WACC formula
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The market value of preferred stock is again usually easily found on themarket, and determined by multiplying the cost per share by number of shares
outstanding
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Now, let us take care of the costs
Preferred equity is equivalent to perpetuity, where the holder is entitled
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to fixed payments forever. Thus the cost is determined by dividing the periodicpayment by the price of the preferred stock, in percentage terms
The cost of common equity is usually determined using the capital asset
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pricing model
The cost of debt is the yield to maturity on the publicly traded bonds of
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the company. Failing availability of that, the rates of interest charged by thebanks on recent loans to the company would also serve as a good cost of debt.
Since a corporation normally can write off taxes on the interest it pays on the
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debt, however, the cost of debt is further reduced by the tax rate that the
corporation is subject to. Thus, the cost of debt for a company becomes (YTM
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on bonds or interest on loans) ? (1 - tax rate). In fact, the tax deduction isusually kept in the formula for WACC, rather than being rolled up into cost of
debt, as such
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WACC = weight of preferred equity ? cost of preferred equity
+ weight of common equity ? cost of common equity
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+ weight of debt ? cost of debt ? (1 - tax rate)Net operating income approach
Net Operating Income or NOI is equal to yearly gross income less operating
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expenses. Gross income includes all income earned by the company. Operating
expenses are costs incurred during the operation and maintenance of the
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167
company. Net operating income or NOI is used in two very important ratios. It
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is an essential ingredient in the Capitalization Rate (Cap Rate) calculation. We
would estimate the value of company like this
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Estimated Value = Net Operating Income / Capitalization RateAnother important ratio that is used is the Debt Coverage Ratio or DCR. The
NOI is a key ingredient in this important ratio also. Lenders and investors use
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the debt coverage ratio to measure a company's ability to pay it's operating
expenses. A debt coverage ratio of 1 is breakeven. From a bank's perspective
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and an investor's perspective, the larger the debt coverage ratio more thebetter. Debt coverage ratio is calculated like this
Debt Coverage Ratio = Net Operating Income / Debt Service
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Debt service is the total of all interest and principal paid in a given year. The Net
Operating Income is an important ingredient in several ratios which include the
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Capitalization Rate, Net Income Multiplier and the Debt Service CoverageRatio
According to net operating income approach in the capital structure, the overall
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capitalization rate and the cost of debt remain constant for all degrees of
financial leverage.
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As we have seen under net income approach the average cost of capital ismeasured as under
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Ra = Rd [D / (D+E)] + Re [E / (D+E)]
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Ra and Rd are constant for all degrees of leverage. Given this, the cost of equitycan be ascertained as under:
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Re [E / (D+E)] = Ra - Rd [D / (D+E)]
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168Re[E / (D+E)][(D+E) / E)]=Ra [(D+E) / E)]-Rd[D / (D+E)] [(D+E)/ E)]
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Re = Ra + (D/E) (Ra - Rd)The critical assumption of this approach is that the market capitalises the
company as a whole at a discount rate which is independent of the company's
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debt-equity ratio. As a result, the division between debt and equity is considered
irrelevant. Any increase in the use of debt capital which is cheaper is offset by
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an increase in the equity capitalization rate. This is obvious because the equityinvestors seek higher return as they are exposed to greater risk which in turn
arises from the increase in the financial leverage.
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This net operating income approach has been propounded by David
Durand. He concluded that the market value of a company depends on its net
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operating income and business risk.The changes in the degree of leverage employed by a company cannot
change these underlying factors. They merely change the distribution of income
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and risk between debt capital and equity capital without affecting the total
income and risk which influence the market value of the company.
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Traditional approachThe traditional view has emerged as a compromise to the extreme positions
taken by the net income approach.
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According to this approach a judicious mix of debt capital and equity
capital can increase the value of the firm by reducing the weighted average cost
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of capital up to a certain level of debtThus, the traditional approach proposes that
- the cost of debt capita remains more or less constant up to a certain level
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of leverage but thereafter rises very sharply at an increasing rate
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169
- The cost of equity capital remains more or less constant or rises only
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gradually up to a certain degree of leverage and rises very sharply
thereafter
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- The average cost of capital, as a result of the above behaviour of cost ofdebt and cost of equity decreases up to a certain point, remains more or
less unchanged for moderate increases in leverage thereafter and rises
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beyond a certain point
This traditional approach is not very clearly or sharply defined as the net
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income or net operating income approaches.The main proposition of the traditional approach is that the cost of capital is
dependent on the capital structure and there is an optimal capital structure which
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minimizes the cost of capital. At this optimal capital structure point the real
marginal cost of debt and cost of equity will be the same. Before this optimal
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point, the real marginal cost of debt is less than the real marginal cost of equityand beyond the optimal point the real marginal cost of debt is more than the real
marginal cost of equity
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The traditional approach implies that investors value leveraged
companies more than the un levered companies. This implies that they are
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prepared to pay a premium for the shares of such levered companies.The contention of the traditional approach that any addition of debt in
sound companies does not really increase the riskiness of the business and the
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shares of the company is not defendable.
Therefore there is no sufficient justification for the assumption that the
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investors' perception about risk of leverage will vary at different levels ofleverage.
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170
However the existence of an optimum capital structure can be justified and
supported on two counts: tax deductibility of interest payments on debt capital
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and other market imperfections
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Modigliani and Miller's propositionModigliani-Miller theorem (of Franco Modigliani, Merton Miller) forms the
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basis for modern thinking on capital structure. The basic theorem states that, in
the absence of taxes, bankruptcy costs, and asymmetric information, and in an
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efficient market, the value of a firm is unaffected by how that firm is financed. Itdoes not matter if the firm's capital is raised by issuing stock or selling debt. It
does not matter what the firm's dividend policy is. The theorem is made up of
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two propositions which can also be extended to a situation with taxes
Propositions Modigliani-Miller theorem (1958) (without taxes)
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Consider two firms which are identical except for their financial structures. Thefirst (Firm U) is unleveraged: that is, it is financed by equity only. The other
(Firm L) is leveraged: it is financed partly by equity, and partly by debt. The
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Modigliani-Miller theorem states that the value the two firms is the same
Proposition I
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where VU is the value of an unlevered firm = price of buying all the firm's
equity, and VL is the value of a levered firm = price of buying all the firm's
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equity, plus all its debt
To see why this should be true, suppose a capitalist is considering buying
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one of the two firms U or L. Instead of purchasing the shares of the leveragedfirm L, he could purchase the shares of firm U and borrow the same amount of
money B that firm L does. The eventual returns to either of these investments
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171
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would be the same. Therefore the price of L must be the same as the price of Uminus the money borrowed B, which is the value of L's debt
This discussion also clarifies the role of some of the theorem's
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assumptions. We have implicitly assumed that the capitalist's cost of borrowing
money is the same as that of the firm, which need not be true under asymmetric
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information or in the absence of efficient marketsProposition II
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rS is the cost of equity
r0 is the cost of capital for an all equity firm
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rB is the cost of debt
B / S is the debt-to-equity ratio
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This proposition states that the cost of equity is a linear function of thefirm?s debt to equity ratio. A higher debt-to-equity ratio leads to a higher
required return on equity, because of the higher risk involved for equity-holders
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in a companies with debt. The formula is derived from the theory of weighted
average cost of capital
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These propositions are true assuming-no taxes exist
-no transaction costs exist
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-individuals and corporations borrow at the same rates
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172
These results might seem irrelevant (after all, none of the conditions are
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met in the real world), but the theorem is still taught and studied because it tellsus something very important. That is, if capital structure matters, it is precisely
because one or more of the assumptions is violated. It tells us where to look for
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determinants of optimal capital structure and how those factors might affect
optimal capital structure
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Propositions Modigliani-Miller theorem (1963) (with taxes)Proposition I:
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VL is the value of a levered firmVU is the value of an unlevered firm
TCB is the tax rate(T_C) x the value of debt (B)
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This means that there are advantages for firms to be levered, since
corporations can deduct interest payments. Therefore leverage lowers tax
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payments. Dividend payments are non-deductibleProposition II:
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rS is the cost of equity
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r0 is the cost of capital for an all equity firmrB is the cost of debt
B / S is the debt-to-equity ratio
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Tc is the tax rate
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173
The same relationship as earlier described stating that the cost of equity
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rises with leverage, because the risk to equity rises, still holds. The formula
however has implications for the difference with the WACC
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Assumptions made in the propositions with taxes are-Corporations are taxed at the rate T_C, on earnings after interest
-No transaction cost exist
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-Individuals and corporations borrow at the same rate
Miller and Modigliani published a number of follow-up papers
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discussing some of these issues. The theorem first appeared in: F. Modiglianiand M. Miller, "The Cost of Capital, Corporation Finance and the Theory of
Investment," American Economic Review (June 1958)
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Assumptions of Modigliani and Miller's proposition
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Perfect capital marketInformation is freely available and there is no problem of asymmetric
information; transactions are costless; there are no bankruptcy costs; securities
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are infinitely divisible
Rational investors and managers
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Investors rationally choose a combination of risk and return that is mostadvantageous to them. Managers act in the interest of the shareholders
Homogenous expectations
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Investors hold uniform or identical expectations about future operating earnings
Equivalent risk classes
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Companies can be easily classified and grouped into equivalent risk classes onthe basis of their business risk
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174Absence of tax
It is assumed there is no tax levied by the respective governments on the
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companies and also in future there wont be any such tax levies on the companiesCriticisms of Modigliani and Miller's proposition
The financial leverage irrelevance proposition of Modigliani and Miller is valid
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only if perfect market assumptions underlying their analysis are fulfilled and
satisfied. In the real world, however, such assumptions are not present and the
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markets are characterized by various imperfections- Companies are liable to pay taxes on their income. (corporate taxes)
- In some countries investors who receive returns from their investments
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in companies (by way of dividend income) are subject to taxes at a
personal level (personal income tax) (In India, such dividends were
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earlier taxed in the hands of the investors but now removed from thescope of personal income tax. However, the companies which declare
dividends are required to pay dividend tax on such dividend distribution
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in addition to corporate tax)
- Agency costs exist because of the conflict of interest between managers
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and shareholders and between shareholders and creditors- Managers seem to have a preference for certain sequence of financing
- Informational asymmetry exists because managers are better informed
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than the investors at all times
- Personal leverage and corporate leverage are not in the same platform
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175Taxes and capital structure
The tax provisions provide for deduction of interest paid on debt and therefore
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the debt capital can increase the company's after tax free cash flows. Therefore
this interest shield increases the value of the company.
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This tax advantage of debt implies that companies will employ moredebt to reduce tax liabilities and increase value. In practice this is not always
true as is evidenced from many empirical studies.
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Companies also have non debt tax shields like depreciation, carry
forward losses, etc. This implies that companies that have larger non debt tax
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shields would employ low debt as they may not have sufficient taxable profit tohave the benefit of interest deductibility.
However, there is a link between non debt tax shields and the debt tax
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shields because companies with higher depreciation would tend to have higher
fixed assets, which serve as collateral against debt.
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Let us examine this with an exampleLet us consider two companies each having operating income of Rs.100,000 and
which are similar in all respects. However the degree of leverage employed by
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them differs. Company A employs no debt capital whereas Company B has
Rs.400,000 in debt capital on which it pays 12 per cent interest.
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The corporate tax rate applicable to both the companies is 30%. Theincome to the share holders of these two companies is shown in the table below
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Company A
Company B
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Operating incomeRs.100,000
Rs.100,000
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Interest on debt
--
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Rs.48,000Profit before tax
Rs.100,000
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Rs.52,000
Taxes
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Rs.30,000Rs.15,600
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176
Profit after tax (income available to
Rs.70,000
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Rs.36,400
shareholders)
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Combined income of debt holders andRs.70,000
Rs.84,400
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shareholders
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Thus it is clear that combined income of debt holders and shareholders of theleveraged firm is higher than that of the un levered firm
This can be explained by the tax shield available to the levered firm ? it
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is equal to the interest on debt capital multiplied by the applicable tax rate. In
this case, it is Rs.48,000 X 30% = Rs.14,400. Only this tax shield amount is the
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reason for the difference in the combined income of debt holders andshareholders of the companies A and B
Hence one may arrive at
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- Interest is tax deductible and, therefore, creates an interest tax subsidy.
- The greater the firm's marginal tax rate the greater the value of the interest
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tax shield.- The value of the interest tax subsidy depends on the firm's ability to
generate taxable income.
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- The more a firm borrows the less the expected realized value of the interest
tax shield.
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- Given that there are other ways to shield income from taxes, the greaterthese alternative tax reducing opportunities the lower the value of the
interest tax shield.
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- Equity investors have a tax advantage relative to debt investors, which
offset the tax advantage of debt at the corporate level.
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177
- Hence there is a moderate tax advantage to debt if you can use the tax
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shields.
However, taxes cannot be the only factor because we do not see companies with
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100% debt.Capital structure determinants in practice
The capital structure determinants in practice may involve considerations in
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addition to the concerns about earning per share, value of the company and cash
and funds flow.
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A company may have enough debt servicing ability but it may not haveassets to offer as collateral.
Management of companies may not willing to lose their grip over the
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control and hence they not be taking up debt capital even if they are in their best
interest.
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Some of the very important considerations are briefly covered belowGrowth potential
Companies with growth opportunities may probably find debt financing very
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expensive in terms of interest to be paid and this may arise due to non
availability of adequate unencumbered collateral securities. This may result in
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losing the investment opportunities.High growth companies may prefer to take debts with lower maturities to
keep interest rates down and to retain the financial flexibility since their
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performance can change unexpectedly at any point of time. They would also
prefer unsecured debt to have flexibility.
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Strong and mature companies have tangible assets and stable profits.Thus they may have low costs of financial distress. These companies would
therefore raise debts with longer maturities as the interest rates will not be high
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for them and they have a lesser need of financial flexibility since their
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178performance is not expected to be altered suddenly. They would also be availing
the interest tax shields which in turn will enhance the value of the companies.
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AssetsThe assets and the form of assets held by the companies are very important
determinants of their capital structure.
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Tangible unencumbered fixed assets serve as a collateral security to debt.
In the event of any unforeseen financial distress, the creditors can have recourse
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to these assets and they may be able to recover their debt by foreclosing suchassets.
Companies with large tangible assets will have very less financial
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distress and costs and they will be preferred by the creditors.
Companies with intangible assets will not have any such advantages
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Non debt and debt tax shieldsThe tax provisions provide for deduction of interest paid on debt and therefore
the debt capital can increase the company's after tax free cash flows. Therefore
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this interest shield increases the value of the company.
This tax advantage of debt implies that companies will employ more
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debt to reduce tax liabilities and increase value. In practice this is not alwaystrue as is evidenced from many empirical studies.
Companies also have non debt tax shields like depreciation, carry
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forward losses, etc. This implies that companies that have larger non debt tax
shields would employ low debt as they may not have sufficient taxable profit to
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have the benefit of interest deductibility.However, there is a link between non debt tax shields and the debt tax
shields because companies with higher depreciation would tend to have higher
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fixed assets, which serve as collateral against debt
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179
Financial flexibility
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Companies will normally have a low level of threat or insolvency perception
even though their cash and funds flows are comfortable. Despite this, the
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companies may exercise conservative approach in their financial leverages sincethe future is very much uncertain and it may be difficult to consider all possible
scenarios of adversity. It is therefore prudent for the companies to maintain
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financial flexibility as this will enable the companies to adjust to any change in
the future events.
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Loan agreementsThe creditors providing the debt capital would insist for restrictive covenants in
the long term loan agreements to protect their interest. Such covenants may
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include distribution of dividends, new additional external finances (other than
equity issue) for existing or new projects, maintain working capital requirements
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at a particular level. These covenants may therefore restrict the companies'investment, financing and dividend policies. Violation of these covenants can
lead to serious adverse consequences. To overcome these restrictive covenants,
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the companies may ask for and provide for early repayment provisions even
with prepayment penalty provisions in the loan agreements.
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ControlIn designing a suitable capital structure, the management of the companies may
decide and desire to continue control over the companies and this is true
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particularly in the case of first generation entrepreneurs. The existing
management team not only wants control and ownership but also to manage the
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company without any outside interference. Widely held and closely heldcompanies may opt to pursue appropriate strategies to hold back their existing
management controls.
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180Issue costs
Issue or floatation costs are incurred when a company decides to raise debt
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capital in the market. These debt issue costs are normally expected to be lowerthan equity issue costs. This alone will encourage the companies to pursue debt
capital. Retained earnings do not involve issue costs. The source of debt also
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influences the issue costs. Regulations like stamp duty on commercial paper or
certificate of deposits may also jack up the issue cost for the companies.
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Thus companies will prefer to go after debt capital for the following reasons
- tax deductibility of interest (availability of tax shield)
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- higher return to shareholders due to gearing
- complicated, time consuming procedure for raising equity capital
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- no dilution of ownership and control- equity results in permanent commitment than debt
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Some frequently asked questions
1. How do firms raise capital for their investments?
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Sources of Capital:Internal ? retained earnings
External - Debt (short-term vs. long-term), Equity and Hybrids (preferred stock,
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convertible bonds, etc.)
2.Which source of capital (internal or external) is used more? Why?
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External ? if the company can leverage well. This will work out well if thecurrent interest rate on external debt is less than the current dividend pay out
percentage and if there is continued opportunity available to the company to
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make more money with this external debt
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181Internal ? if the company can convince the shareholders to retain the earnings
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instead of distributing as dividends and if there is plenty of opportunity available
for using such internal funds for profitable deployment. Virtually these retained
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earnings would be available to the company at nil cost.3.Which source of external capital (debt or equity) is used more? Why?
Almost all the companies use both the forms of external capital ? debt and
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equity. The equity is available at nil cost. If the company can leverage well, it
can raise debt capital as well and if such debt carries lower interest rate when
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compared with the percentage earnings.4. Are there any trends in corporate financing?
Capital structure in practice ? debt capital and equity capital ? is an evolving
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subject. Many of the successful companies have one form of financing pattern ?
either wholly using internal funds, or external equity. In case debt capital is
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sought for, the creditors would insist on adequate margin from the companyitself by way of shareholder funds. Thus, depending upon the evolving situation,
the modern companies meet their financing requirements either through retained
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earnings, or equity capital and if debt capital is sought for, with required equity
capital arrangements.
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5. If a firm issues new debt, what will happen to the firm's stock price? And if afirm issues new equity, what will happen to the firm's stock price?
Depends on what the firm will do with the money! Brealey & Myers' Fourth
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Law "You can make a lot more money by smart investment decisions than smart
financing decisions." Brous' Sixth Law "Good investments are good and bad
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investments are bad, no matter how they are financed".--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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When attempting to understand how capital structure changes affect firm value,
it is useful to examine pure capital structure changes. For example, Debt for
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Equity swaps (leverage increasing) or Equity for Debt swaps (leverage
decreasing).
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6. If a firm issues debt to repurchase equity, what will happen to the firm's stockprice?
If such debt is available at a comparatively lower cost and below the current
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level of percentage earnings, then such use of debt capital to repurchase issued
equity in the market place, the share price should go up. Of course, the investors
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should continue to have the outlook that the company's future earning potentialis not affected by such repurchase equity options.
This can also be approached through traditional performance measures by
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answering the following questions -
- What will happen to the company's Profitability?
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- EPS and ROE?- Profit Margin or ROA?
- Operating Margin or OROA?
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- What will happen to the firm's ability to manage assets?
- What will happen to the firm' ability to manage liabilities or
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shareholders' exposure to risk?Value based measures of performance are also used to ascertain what will
happen to the share prices
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- What will happen to the firm's EVA?
- What will happen to the firm's WACC?
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- What will happen to the firm's free cash flow?- What will happen to the firm's value based on the DCF model?
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7. Does debt policy matter?
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The valuation effect of changes in leverage is not obviousWe can't say that increases in debt will lead to increases in value, anymore than
we can say that decreases in debt lead to decreases in value.
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Since we observe firms having varying capital structures across industries but
consistent capital structures within industries, then it appears debt does matter.
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Debt exaggerates performance, good performance looks better but badperformance could become deadly.
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To sum up.....
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- The capital structure of a company reflects the debt capital ? equitycapital mix of the company
- All capital structure decisions of a company are very important from the
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point of view of shareholders' return and risk and hence the market value
of the company
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- Financial leverage in broader terms represents the use of external debtcapital along with equity capital in the capital structure of a company
- Increasing the shareholders' return is the main reason for using financial
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leverage in capital structure of a company
- A company determines the financial advantages of financial leverage by
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calculating its impact on EPS or ROE- If the company's overall profitability is more than current market interest
rates, then EPS will increase with debt.
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- With increasing EBIT, EPS increases faster with more debt
- The degree of financial leverage is the percentage change in EPS
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occurring due to a given percentage change in EBIT184
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- The degree of operational leverage is the percentage change in EBIT
occurring due to a given percentage change in sales
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- Financial leverage is a double edged weapon ? it increases shareholders'
return and on the other, it also increases the shareholders' risk
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- Net income approach, net operating income approach, traditionalapproach and Modigliani ? Miller approach are different approaches to
the relationship between capital structure and company value
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- According to the net income approach, the cost of debt capital and the
cost of equity capital remain unchanged when the leverage ratio varies.
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As a result, the average cost of capital declines as the leverage ratioincreases. This happens because when the leverage ratio increases, the
cost of debt, which is lower than the cost of equity, receives a higher
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weightage in the average cost of capital calculation
- According to net operating income approach, the overall capitalization
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rate remains constant for all levels of financial leverage, the cost of debtremains constant for all levels of financial leverage and the cost of equity
increases linearly with financial leverage
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- The main propositions of traditional approach are ? the cost of debt
remains more or less constant up to a certain degree of leverage but rises
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thereafter at an increasing rate ? the cost of equity capital remains moreor less constant or rises only gradually upto a certain degree of leverage
and rises sharply thereafter ? the average cost of capital, as a
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consequence of above behaviour of the cost of debt and cost of equity
decreases upto a certain point, remains more or less unchanged for
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185
moderate increases in leverage thereafter and rises beyond that at an
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increasing rate
- According Modigliani ? Miller, a company's market value is not affected
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by its capital structureKey words
Capital gearing
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Capital structure
Combined leverage
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Cost of debtCost of equity
Coverage ratio
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Financial leverage
Financial risk
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Information asymmetryInterest tax shield
Net income approach
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Net operating income approach
Operating leverage
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Optimum cash structureRisk return trade off
Weighted average cost of capital
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Terminal questions
1. What do you understand by business risk and financial risk? What factors
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influence business risk?2. A company should finance proactively and not reactively. Do you agree?
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186
3. The more debt the firm issues, the higher the interest rate it must pay. That is
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one important reason why companies should operate at conservative debt levels.
Critically evaluate this statement
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4. It has been suggested that one disadvantage of common stock financing is thatshare prices tend to decline in recessions and bear market conditions, thereby
increasing the cost of capital and deterring investment. Discuss this view. Is it an
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argument for greater use of debt financing?
5. Compute the value of interest tax shields generated by these three debt issues.
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Consider corporate taxes only. The marginal tax rate is 30%a. Rs.100,000 one year loan at 10 per cent per annum
b. A five year loan of Rs.500,000 at 12 per cent per annum. It is assumed
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that the entire loan amount is repaid only at maturity
6. To study the relationship between capital structure and company value, what
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are the assumptions normally made7. What is the relationship between leverage and cost of capital as per the net
income approach?
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8. Discuss the relationship between leverage and cost of capital as per the net
operating income approach
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9. What are the important propositions of the traditional approach?10. Define and discuss Modigliani ? Miller proposition I and proposition II
11. Comment on capital structure policies in practice
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12. Elucidate the control implications of alternative financing plans
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187UNIT IV - DIVIDENT POLICIES
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LESSON OUTLINEWhat is dividend?
How do we define dividends?
Factors which influence dividend decisions
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What is the form in which dividends are paid?Dividend policies
Issues in dividend policy
Some important dates in dividend payments
Some Frequently Asked Questions
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The Residual Theory of DividendsDividend Irrelevance
Signaling Hypothesis
Dividend Relevance:
Walter's Model
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Gordon's modelImplications for Corporate Policy
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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After reading this lesson you should be able to- Enlighten the objectives of dividend policy and understand, appreciate
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and highlight the relevance of the various issues in the dividend policy- Recognise and understand the factors that influence the dividend policy
- Critically, significantly and decisively evaluate and get convinced as to
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why dividend policy matters- Discuss the various background and conditions for paying current
dividends
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- Elucidate and explain the logic of irrelevance of dividends
- Identify and make out the market imperfections that make dividend
policy relevant
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- Focus and discuss the importance of stability of dividend policy,
significance and repercussion of bonus shares, stock splits and share
buybacks
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- Explain the corporate behaviour of dividends
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188
INTRODUCTION
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Dividend policy and decision are critical and crucial areas of management.Dividends are earnings which are distributed to the shareholders. The percentage
of earnings paid or dividends declared is called payout ratio.
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A high pay out means more dividends and this will lead to less funds
internally generated and available for expansion and growth. A low pay out
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therefore should result in higher growth as retained earnings are significantinternal sources of financing the growth of the firm.
Such dividend policies affect the market value of the firm. Whether such
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dividend will result in increased value or not will be directly dependent on the
profitable investment opportunities available and exploited by the firm.
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On the other hand, there is a predominant view that dividends are bad asthey lead to the payment of higher taxes and they reduce the shareholders'
wealth. Dividends when declared are taxed by the governments. Despite this
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there is a strong investor expectation that dividends are a form of rewards to
them.
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Given these different perceptions, what is the ideal position in thedividend declarations? How do companies construct their dividend policies?
What are the factors reckoned in constructing such policies?
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The following detailed discussion will aim at providing valuable inputs
in arriving at the right answer.
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Dividend
I. What is dividend?
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A dividend is a bonus, an extra, a payment, a share or a surplus or periodicalreturn on any original investments. Suppose we have invested in a company
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189
Rs.100,000 as a share holder and the company declares a return of say
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Rs.10,000 on this investment in a particular year, then the return is called thedividend on the investment made and the dividend pay out is 10%.
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II. How do we define dividends?Thus dividend is the distribution of value to shareholders, normally out of the
profits made by the firm in a particular year. Of course, unlike interest payable
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on a deposit or a loan which is compulsory payment, dividend is not a
compulsory yearly payment. Only if the company makes a profit decides to
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distribute such profits, declare dividends, the share holders will get a return.III. Factors which influence dividend decisions
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1. Legal constraints:Normally all countries prohibit companies from paying out as cash dividends
any portion of the firm's legal capital, which is measured by the par value of
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equity shares (common stock) Other countries define legal capital to include not
only the par value of the equity shares (common stock), but also premium paid if
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any (any-paid in ? capital in excess of par).These capital impairment restrictions are generally established to provide a
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sufficient equity base to protect creditor's claims.We shall examine an example to clarify the differing definitions of capital:
Company XYZ Limited's financial highlights as revealed from its latest balance
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sheet are as follows:
Equity share at par 1,00,000
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Premium paid over par value (Paid-in capital in excess of par) 2,00,000190
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Retained earnings 1,40,000Total shareholders equity 4,40,000
In states where the firm's legal capital is defined as the par value of the equity
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share, the firm could pay out Rs 3,40,000 (2,00,000+1,40,000) in cash dividends
with out impairing its capital. In other states where the firm's legal capital
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includes premium paid if any (all paid-in capital), the firm could pay out only1,40,000 in cash dividends.
An earnings requirement limiting the amount of dividends to the sum of
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the firm's present and past earnings is sometimes imposed. In other words the
firm cannot pay more in cash dividends than the sum of its most recent and past-
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retained earnings. However, the firm is not prohibited from paying more individends than its current earnings.
Thus dividends can be paid only out of the profits earned during a
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financial year after providing for depreciation and after transferring to reserves
such percentage of profits as prescribed by law.
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Due to inadequacy or absence of profits in any year, dividend may bepaid out of the accumulated profits of the previous years.
Dividends cannot be declared for past years for which the accounts have
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been closed.
2. Contractual constraints:
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Often, the firm's ability to pay cash dividends is constrained by restrictiveprovisions in a loan agreement. Generally, these constraints prohibit the
payment of cash dividends until a certain level of earnings have been achieved,
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or they may limit dividends to a certain amount or a percentage of earnings.
Constraints on dividends help to protect creditors from losses due to the firm's
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191
insolvency. The violation of a contractual constraint is generally grounds for a
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demand of immediate payment by the funds supplier.
3. Internal constraints:
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The firm's ability to pay cash dividends is generally constrained by the amount
of excess cash available rather than the level of retained earnings against which
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to charge them. Although it is possible for a firm to borrow funds to paydividends, lenders are generally reluctant to make such loans because they
produce no tangible or operating benefits that will help the firm repay the loan.
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Although the firm may have high earnings, its ability to pay dividends may be
constrained by a low level of liquid assets. (Cash and marketable securities)
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We will take the previous example to explain this point. In our example,
the firm can pay Rs.1,40,000 in dividends. Suppose that the firm has total liquid
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assets of Rs.50,000 (Rs.20,000 cash +marketable securities worth Rs.30,000)
and Rs.35,000 of this is needed for operations, the maximum cash dividend the
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firm can pay is 15,000 (Rs.50,000 ? Rs.35,000)4. Growth prospects:
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The firm's financial requirements are directly related to the anticipated degree ofasset expansion. If the firm is in a growth stage, it may need all its funds to
finance capital expenditures. Firms exhibiting little or no growth may never
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need replace or renew assets. A growth firm is likely to have to depend heavily
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5. Owner considerations:
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In establishing a dividend policy, the firm's primary concern normally would be
to maximise shareholder's wealth. One such consideration is then tax status of a
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firm's owners. Suppose that if a firm has a large percentage of wealthyshareholders who are in a high tax bracket, it may decide to pay out a lower
percentage of its earnings to allow the owners to delay the payments of taxes
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until they sell the stock.
Of course, when the equity share is sold, the proceeds are in excess of
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the original purchase price, the capital gain will be taxed, possible at a morefavorable rate than the one applied to ordinary income. Lower-income
shareholders, however who need dividend income will prefer a higher payout of
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earnings.
As of now, the dividend income is not taxed in the hands of the share
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holders in India. Instead, for paying out such dividends to its share holders, thecompany bears the dividend distribution tax.
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6. Market Considerations:The risk-return concept also applies to the firm's dividend policy. A firm where
the dividends fluctuate from period to period will be viewed as risky, and
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investors will require a high rate of return, which will increase the firm's cost of
capital. So, the firm's dividend policy also depends on the market's probable
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response to certain types of policies. Shareholders are believed to value a fixedor increasing level of dividends as opposed to a fluctuating pattern of dividends.
In other words, the market consideration is a kind of information content
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of the dividends. It's a kind of signal for the firm to decide its final policy. A
stable and continuous dividend is a positive signal that conveys to the owners
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193
that the firm is in good in health. On the other side, if the firm skips in paying
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dividend due to any reason, the shareholders are likely to interpret this as a
negative signal.
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7. Taxation
The firm's earnings are taxable in many countries. This taxation is applied
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differently in different countries. One can group these different taxationpractices as under:
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Single taxationThe firm's earnings are taxed only once at the corporate level. Share holders
whether they are individuals or other firms do not pay taxes on the dividend
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income. They are exempt from tax. However the shareholders both individuals
and other firms are liable for capital gains tax. India currently follows this single
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taxation. Under this, the firms in India pay 35% tax on their earnings and theywill have to pay additional tax at 12.5% on the after tax profits distributed as
dividends to the shareholders. The experience shows that after the
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implementation of this single taxation, Indian firms have started sharing a
sizeable portion of their earnings with their shareholders as dividends
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Double taxation
Under this, the shareholders' earnings are taxed two times: first the firms' profit
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earnings are taxed as corporate tax and then the shareholders' dividend earningsout of the after tax profits are taxed as dividend tax.
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194
Split rate taxation
Under this, the firm's profits are divided into retained earnings and dividends for
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the purpose of taxation. A higher tax rate is applied to retained earnings and a
lower one to earnings distributed as dividends. As share holders pay tax on
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dividends and tax on capital gains, this lower tax rate can be justified. But for alower tax rate on the dividend income, the system works on the same lines as
that of double taxation.
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Imputation taxation
The advantage of this system is that the shareholders are not subjected to double
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taxation. A firm pays corporate tax on its earnings. Shareholders pay personal
taxes on their dividends but they will get full or partial tax credit for the tax paid
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by the firm on its original earnings. In countries like Australia, the shareholderswill get full tax relief or tax credit while in Canada, only partial relief is
provided.
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IV. What is the form in which dividends are paid?
1.Cash dividend:
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1. Regular cash dividend ? cash payments made directly to shareholders, usually
every year. If more than one dividend payment is made during a year, it will be
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normally referred to as interim dividends. The total dividend therefore would bethe sum of such interim dividends and final dividend if any.
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2. Extra cash dividend ? indication that the "extra" amount may not be repeatedin the future. For example, the firm may earn a bumper profit in a particular year
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195
and the firm may decide to declare extra cash dividend over and above the
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normal dividends.3. Special cash dividend ? similar to extra dividend, but definitely won't be
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repeated. Some companies have declared such special dividends on the occasionof their silver or golden jubilee.
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4. Liquidating dividend ? some or all of the business has been sold. This will bea payout in lieu of the original investment made by the shareholders in case the
firm is voluntarily decides to close its operation or if it is compelled by
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stakeholders other than equity shareholders. Such liquidating dividend may be
paid in one lump sum or in stages, depending on the recovery of the free assets
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of the firm in stages.2.Share Dividends:
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Instead of declaring cash dividends, the firm may decide to issue additionalshares of stock free of payment to the shareholders. In this, the firm's number of
outstanding shares would be increasing. In the case of cash dividends, the firm
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may not be able to recycle such earnings in its business. However, in the case of
these stock dividends, such earnings are retained in the business. By this, the
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shareholders can expect to get increased earnings in the future years. This stockdividend is popularly known as bonus issue of shares in India. If such bonus
issues are in the range or ratio up to 1:5 (a maximum of 20%), i.e. one share for
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every five shares held, it is treated as small stock dividend. In case the stock
dividend exceeds 20%, then it is called large stock dividend.
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Let us examine this with an example
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196
If a firm declares 1:10 (10%) bonus, i.e. one share for every ten shares held,
If the initial balance sheet was
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Common stock (100,000 shares) 1000,000
Retained Earnings 800,000
Total Equity 1,800,000
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After the bonus issue, the new balance sheet would beCommon stock (110,000 shares) 1100,000
Retained Earnings 700,000
Total Equity 1,800,000
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Advantages of share dividends
For the shareholders
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For the firmsTax benefit
Conservation of cash
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Possibility for higher future earnings
Means to pay dividends in times of
financial and contractual restrictions
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Increase in future dividends
More attractive market price
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Psychological impactInvestor friendly management image
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Following are some of the facts in the share dividends (bonus shares or issues)- shareholders' funds remain unaffected (prior to the bonus issue, the
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earnings were in the reserves and surplus account and after the bonusissue, the face value of the bonus shares issued is transferred from the
reserves and surplus account to share issued account ? virtually no
change in the shareholders funds)
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- it is costly (the firm has to make certain statutory payments like stamp
duty, exchange fees, etc on the bonus share issued and naturally they will
have to be paid out of the earnings of the firm only)
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3. Stock split
From shareholders' perspective, a stock split has the same effect as a stock
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dividend. From the firm's perspective, the change in the balance sheet will be
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197different. A three-for-two stock split, for example, corresponds to a 50% stock
dividend. A 10% stock dividend is then equivalent to a eleven-for-ten stock
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split.
If the initial balance sheet was
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Common stock (100,000 shares) 1000,000
Retained Earnings 800,000
Total Equity 1,800,000
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With an 11-for-10 stock split, the new balance sheet would beCommon stock (110,000 shares) 1000,000
Retained Earnings 800,000
Total Equity 1,800,000
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Share dividend Vs Share split
Share dividend
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Share splitThe balance in paid up capital and The balance in paid up capital and
share premium accounts go up.
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share premium accounts does notchange
The balance in reserves and surplus The balance in reserves and surplus
account decreases due to transfer to the account does not under go any change.
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paid up capital and share premiumaccount1111
The par value per share remains The par value per share changes ? it
unaffected
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goes down.However, in both cases ? share dividend and share split ? the total value of the
shareholders' funds remains unaffected.
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4. Share repurchase
Share repurchase is also otherwise known as repurchase of its own shares by a
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firm. Only recently the share repurchase by firms in India was permitted under198
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Section 77 of the Indian Companies Act. The following conditions are to beadhered by Indian firms in case they decide to pursue share repurchase option
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- a firm buying back its own shares will not issue fresh capital, except
bonus issue, for the next one year
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- the firm will state the amount to be used for the buyback of shares and
seek prior approval of the shareholders
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- the buyback of the shares can be effected only by utilizing the free
reserves, i.e. reserves not specifically earmarked for some other purpose
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or provision- the firm will not borrow funds to buyback shares
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- the shares bought under the buyback schemes will have to be
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extinguished and they cannot be reissuedRationale
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There are several justifications for share repurchase.Efficient allocation of resources
A repurchase often represents a worth while investment proposition for the
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company. When companies purchase their own stock, they often find it easy to
acquire more value than the value invested for the purchase. Stock repurchase
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can check extravagant managerial tendencies. Companies having surplus cashmay expand or diversity uneconomically. Prudent managements recognize and
check their tendencies to waste cash. Stock markets appreciate these repurchase
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decisions with an increase in the share prices. Through such repurchases, the
management can demonstrate its commitment to enhance shareholder value.
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199Price stability
Share prices tend to fluctuate a great deal in response to changing market
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conditions and periodic boom and bust conditions. If a company were to
repurchase its shares when the market price looks depressed to the management,
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the repurchase action of the management tends to have a buoying effect in thebearish market.
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Tax advantageSuch repurchases result in capital gains for the investors and these capital gains
are taxed at a lower rate when compared with dividend distribution
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Management control
The share repurchases can be used as an instrument to increase the insider
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control in the companies. Normally insiders do not tender their shares when a
company decides to share repurchase. They end up holding a larger proportion
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of the reduced equity of the company and thereby have greater controlAdvantages:
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Repurchase announcements are viewed as positive signals by investors.Stockholders have a choice when a firm repurchases stocks: They can sell or not
sell. Dividends are sticky in the short-run because reducing them may negatively
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affect the stock price. Extra cash may then be distributed through stock
repurchases.
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200
Disadvantages:
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Stockholders may not be indifferent between dividends and capital gains. The
selling stockholders may not be fully aware of all the implications of a
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repurchase. The corporation may pay too much for the repurchased stocks.5. Dividend Reinvestment Plans (DRIPs)
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Some companies offer DRIPs, whereby shareholders can use the dividendreceived to purchase additional shares (even fractional) of the company without
brokerage cost. These companies that offer DRIPs also offer share repurchase
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plans (SRP), which allow shareholders to make optional cash contributions that
are eventually used to purchase shares. Though this practice is not in vogue in
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India, in developed countries this is very common. However, we can findanother variant to this `dividend reinvestment plans' in the mutual funds sector.
Some of the mutual funds offer growth plans through such `dividend
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reinvestment plans'
V. Issues in dividend policy
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Normally, a firm would be using its dividend policy to pursue its objective of
maximizing its shareholders' return so that the value of their investment is
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maximized. Shareholders return consists of dividends and capital gains.Dividend policy directly influences these two components of return.
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Even if dividends are not declared but retained in the firm, the shareholders'wealth or return would go up.
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We shall examine various ratios which impact our firm's dividend policy--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
201
1. Pay out ratio
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It is defined as dividend as a percentage of earnings. It is an important conceptin the dividend policy. A firm may decide to distribute almost its entire earnings.
Another firm may decide to distribute only a portion of its earnings. Initially it
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may appear, the former firm declares maximum dividends. However in the long
run, the latter firm which declares only a portion of its earnings may overtake
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our former high pay out firm.Let us now look at this with an example.
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Firms X and Y have equity capital of Rs.100. Let us assume both the firmsgenerate 25% earnings every year. Let us assume that Firm X declares 50%
dividend every year and firm Y declares only 25% dividend every year.
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Firm / Year
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Equity25%
Dividend
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Retained
earnings
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EarningsFirm X
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1
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10025
12.50
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12.50
2
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112.5028.12
14.06
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14.06
3
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126.5631.64
15.82
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15.82
4
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142.3835.59
17.79
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17.79
5
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160.1740.04
20.02
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20.02
6
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180.1945.04
22.52
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22.52
7
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202.7150.67
25.33
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25.33
8
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228.0457.01
28.50
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28.50
9
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256.5464.13
32.06
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32.06
10
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288.6072.15
36.07
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36.07
11
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324.6781.16
40.58
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40.58
12
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365.2591.31
45.65
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45.65
13
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410.90102.72
51.36
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51.36
14
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462.26115.56
57.78
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57.78
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20215
520.04
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130.0165.00
65.00
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Total dividend income received by the 485.04
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investorFirm Y
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1100
25
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6.25
18.75
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2118.75
29.68
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7.42
22.26
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3141.01
35.25
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8.81
26.43
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4167.44
41.86
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10.46
31.39
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5198.83
49.70
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12.42
37.28
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6236.11
59.02
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14.75
44.27
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7280.38
70.09
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17.52
52.57
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8332.95
83.23
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20.80
62.43
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9395.38
98.84
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24.71
74.13
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10469.51
117.37
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29.34
88.03
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11557.54
139.38
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34.84
104.54
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12662.08
165.52
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41.38
124.14
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13786.22
196.55
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49.13
147.42
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14933.64
233.41
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58.35
175.06
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151108.7
277.17
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69.29
207.88
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Total dividend income received by the 405.47investor
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If you look at the returns* to the investors of firms X and Y at the end of 15
years, the following position will emerge on Rs.100 invested in each firm
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Firm X
Firm Y
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Total dividend incomeRs.485.04
Rs.405.47
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Total capital gain (over
Rs.420.04
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Rs.1,008.70the original investment
amount of Rs.100)
Total income
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Rs.905.08
1414.17
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*overlooking the interest on the dividend received by way of cash.In the case of low dividend pay out company, in fact from the year 14 onwards,
the quantum of dividend paid has actually overtaken the high dividend pay out
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company.
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203If you look at the market value, a low pay out firm will result in a higher share
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price in the market because it increases earnings growth.Uncertainty surrounding future company profitability leads certain investors to
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prefer the certainty of current dividends. Investors prefer "large" dividends.Investors do not like to manufacture "homemade" dividends, but prefer the
company to distribute them directly.
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Capital gains taxes are deferred until the actual sale of stock. This creates a
timing option. Capital gains are preferred to dividends, everything else equal.
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Thus, high dividend yielding stocks should sell at a discount to generate a higher
before-tax rate of return. Certain institutional investors pay no tax.
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Dividends are taxed more heavily than capital gains, so before-tax returns
should be higher for high dividend - paying firms. Empirical results are mixed --
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recently the evidence is largely consistent with dividend neutrality.2. Retention ratio
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If x is pay out ratio, then the retention ratio is 100 minus x. That is retentionratio is just the reverse of the pay out ratio. As we have seen above, a low pay
out (and hence a high retention) policy will produce a possible higher dividend
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announcement (and thereby higher share price in the secondary market leading
to huge capital gains) because it increases earnings growth.
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3. Capital gains
Investors of growth companies will realize their return mostly in the form of
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capital gains. Normally such growth companies will have increasing earnings204
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year after year but their pay out ratio may not be very high. Their retention ratiowill therefore be higher. Investors in such companies will reap capital gains in
the later years. However, the impact of dividend policy (high or low pay out
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with low or high retention ratio) is not very simple. Such capital gains will result
in the distant future and hence many investors may consider them as uncertain.
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4. Dividend yield
The dividend yield is the dividends per share divided by the market value per
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share. The dividend yield furnishes the shareholders' return in relation to themarket value of the share.
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VI. Some important dates in dividend payments1. Declaration Date
Every year or half year or quarterly or on chosen special occasions, the Board of
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Directors of the firm will first meet and recommend on the quantum of dividend
and it becomes a liability of the company. Therefore declaration date is the date
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at which the company announces it will pay a dividend.2. Date of Record
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This record date is the declared by the firm while announcing the dividendpayment and only those shareholders who are on the record of the firm on this
date will receive the dividend payment. It is therefore the date at which the list
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of shareholders who will receive the dividend is made.
3. Ex-dividend Date
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205
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This occurs two business days before date of record. If one were to buy stock or
share on or after this date, he or she will not eligible to receive the dividend.
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Hence naturally the stock or share price generally drops by about the amount ofthe dividend on or after this date. Therefore the convention is that the right to the
dividend remains with the stock until two business days before the holder-of-
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record date. Whoever buys the stock on or after the ex-dividend date does not
receive the dividend.
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4. Date of Payment
This is the date on which the dividend payment cheques are made out and
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mailed. Since many firms follow the electronic clearing system for crediting thedividends to the shareholders' accounts, the date of payment is the date on
which such ECS instructions are issued to the banks. In this ECS method of
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payment, there is no paper work involved ? cheques need not be made out
mailed and mailed ? enormous savings in expenditure in the cheque book costs
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and also in the dispatch.Let us examine these different dates with an example:
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Suppose our firm XYZ Limited announces on 10th June 2005 that it would pay adividend of 20% to all their shareholders on record at close of business on June
30th 2004.
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The declaration date is 10th June 2005
The record date is 30th June 2005
Ex dividend date is 28th June 2005
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(while reckoning the ex dividend date all Saturdays, Sundays and other holidays? the days the stock exchange does not work ? should be excluded)
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206
Check your progress
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1.ABC Limited, a Public Sector Undertaking, has paid 75% interim dividendduring the fourth quarter of the financial year 2005-06. Match the following sets
of dates
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1.27th February 2006
A.Record date
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2.6th March 2006
B.Payment date
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3.7th March 2006C.Ex-dividend date
4.9th March 2006
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D.Last with-dividend date
5.3rd April 2006
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E.Declaration dateSome Frequently Asked Questions(FAQs)
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Let us assume that we hold share in a firm and it is worth Rs 10.
Are we eligible for the dividend?
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Yes. If we hold the share prior to the ex-dividend date we will receive thedividend.
What will be the price of our share after we receive the dividend?
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The stock price will generally fall by the amount of the dividend on the ex-date.If we get dividend of Re 1 per share and the stock price is Rs 10 prior to the this
ex-date, the price of our share on ex-date will be Rs 9 per share (10-1)
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What are then the important components of shareholders return?
- Cash dividends (Payout).
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- Share dividends (bonus issues)- Share splits
- Share repurchase
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207What if the firm does not pay dividend?
In case the firm does not declare or pay any dividend, then the earnings would
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be accumulated under reserves and surpluses. And they would be invested in the
business again. And we know that the retained earnings are comparatively
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cheaper and cumbersome. Only these retained earnings generate capital gainsfor the shareholders.
Thus, either decision ? to pay dividends or retain earnings - will affect the value
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of the firm.What are therefore the most crucial issues for a firm in paying dividends?
1. High or low payout?
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2. How frequent?
3. Do we announce the policy?
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4. Amount in near future & long term5. Stable or irregular dividends?
The most important aspect of dividend policy is to determine the amount of
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earnings to be distributed to shareholders and the amount to be retained inthe firm with an objective to maximise shareholder's return.
We can say that a higher payout policy means more current dividends & less
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retained earnings, which may consequently result in slower growth and perhapslower market price/ share. On the other hand, low payout policy means less
current dividends, more retained earnings & higher capital gains and perhaps
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higher market price per share.
Capital gains are future earnings while dividends are current earnings.
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208
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Thus we firmly establish the distinction between low payout and high payoutcompanies, capital gains and dividends. Another important point that deserves
attention is that dividends in most countries attract higher taxes. Therefore it is
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quite plausible that some investor's would prefer high-payout companies while
others may prefer low-payout companies.
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How do we define dividend policy?
It's the decision for the firm to pay out earnings versus retaining and reinvesting
them
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Now that we know that there exists a relationship between dividend policy
and value of the firm. Being an investor, what we should prefer high
payouts or low payouts?
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If we prefer a high payout, we don't trust future and we want to enjoy all thebenefits today. So we don't want to take the risk.
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In the case we prefer low payout, we want the firm to grow with new
investment opportunities using our money since we know that retained earnings
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are comparatively cheaper.See, it is very difficult to specify. We have different theories bases on
differing opinions of the analysts; some consider dividend decision to be
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irrelevant and some believe dividend decision to be an active variable
influencing the value of the firm.
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Let us study these theories one by one.
Traditional theory
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According to the traditional theory put forward by Graham and Dodd, the capitalmarket attaches considerable importance on dividends rather than on retained
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209
earnings. According to them "the capital markets are overwhelmingly in favour
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of liberal dividends as against conservative or too low dividends'The following valuation model worked out by them clearly confirms the above
view
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P = M (d + e / 3)
Where, P = market price per share, D = dividend per share, E = earnings per
share, M = a multiplier
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According to this, in the valuation of share the weight attached to
dividends is equal to four times the weight attached to retained earnings. This is
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made clear in the following modified model ? in this E is replaced by D+R
P = M [d + (d +r/ 3)]
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R = retained earnings
The weights provided by Graham and Dodd are based on their estimation
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and this is not derived objectively through empirical analysis. Not with standing
this observation, the major thrust of the traditional theory is that liberal pay out
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policy has a favourable impact on stock priceThe Residual Theory of Dividends
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One of the schools of thought, the residual theory, suggests that the
dividend paid by a firm is viewed as a residual, i.e. the amount remaining or
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leftover after all acceptable investment opportunities have been considered andundertaken.
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In this approach, the dividend decision is done in stages as under:--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
2101. First the optimal level of capital expenditures is determined;
2. Then the total amount of equity financing needed to support the expenditures
is estimated
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3. Reinvested profits is utilised to meet the equity requirement.
4. After this, if there is a surplus available in reinvested profits after meeting this
equity need, then the surplus, the residual, is distributed to shareholders as
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dividends.Thus, under this theory,
Dividend = Net income ? Additional equity needed.
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Let us examine this with an example
Suppose our XYZ Limited plans to invest Rs.100 million in a new
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project and it has finalized the target equity ratio at 60% and decided to meet
this fresh equity through internal accruals. Suppose in that particular year, our
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firm earns Rs.90 million as profits. The amount that can be distributed asdividend by XYZ Limited would be
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Requirement of new project--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.100 million
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At target equity ratio of 60, XYZ Limited will need to invest Rs.60 millionProfit earned by XYZ Limited in that year
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Rs. 90 million
Balance available after meeting this fresh equity need
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Rs. 30 million
Thus Rs.30 million can be distributed as dividend by XYZ Limited
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Thus, under the residual dividend model, the better the firm's investment
opportunities, the lower the dividend paid. Following the residual dividend
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policy rigidly would lead to fluctuating dividends, something investors don'tlike
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211
To satisfy shareholders' taste for stable dividends, firms should
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1. Estimate earnings and investment opportunities, on average over the next five
to ten years;
2. Use this information to find out the average residual payout ratio;
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3. Set a target payout ratio.
Dividend Irrelevance
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A firm operating in a perfect or ideal capital market conditions, may many timesface the following dilemmas with regard to payment of dividends
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- The firm has sufficient cash to pay dividends but such payments may
erode its cash balance
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- The firm does not have enough cash to pay dividends and to meet its
dividend payment needs, the firm may have to issue to new shares
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- The firm does not pay dividends, but shareholders expect and need cash
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In the first case, when the firm pays dividends, shareholders get cash in
their hands but the firm's cash balance gets reduced. Though the shareholders
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gain in the form of such dividends, they lose in the form of their claims on thecash assets of the firm. This can be viewed as a transfer of wealth of the
shareholder from one portfolio to another. Thus there is no net gain or loss. In a
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perfect market condition, this will not affect the value of the firm.
In the second one, the issue of new shares to finance dividend payments
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results in two transactions ? existing share holders gets cash in the form ofdividends and the new shareholders part with their cash to the company in
exchange for new shares. The existing shareholders suffer an equal amount of
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capital loss since the value of their claim on firm's assets gets reduced. The new
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212shareholders gain new shares at a fair price per share. The fair price per share is
the share price before the payment of dividends less dividend per share to the
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existing shareholders. The existing shareholders transfer a part of their claim onthe firm to the new shareholders in exchange for cash. Thus there is no gain or
loss. Since these two transactions are fair, the value of the firm will remain
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unaffected.
In the third scenario, if the firm does not pay dividend, the shareholder
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can still create cash to meet his needs by selling a part or whole of his shares atthe market price in the stock exchange. The shareholder will have lesser number
of shares as he has exchanged a part of his claim on the firm to the new
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shareholder in exchange for cash. The net effect is the same once again. The
transaction is a fair one as there is no gain or loss. The value of the firm will
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remain unaffected.This dividend irrelevance theory goes by the name Miller ? Modigliani
(MM) Hypothesis as they have propounded the same.
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Miller and Modigliani have put forward the view that the value of a firm
depends solely on its earnings power and is not influenced by the manner in
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which its earnings are split between dividends and retained earnings. This viewis expressed as the MM ? Dividend Irrelevance theory and is put forward in their
acclaimed 1961 research work ? Dividend policy, growth and the valuation of
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shares ? in the Journal of Business Vol 34 (Oct 1961)
In this work, Miller and Modigliani worked out their argument on the following
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presumptions:- capital markets are perfect and investors are rational: information is
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freely available, transactions are spontaneous, instantaneous, costless;securities are divisible and no one particular investor can influence
market prices
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213
- floatation costs are nil and negligible
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- there are no taxes
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- investment opportunities and future profits of firms are known and can
be found out with certainty ? subsequently Miller and Modigliani have
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dropped this presumption- investment and dividend decisions are independent
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Thus, the MM hypothesis reveals that under a perfect market conditions,
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the dividend policies of a firm are irrelevant, as they do not affect the value andworth of the firm. It further unfolds that the value of the firm depends on its
earnings and they result from its investment policy. Therefore, the dividend
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decision of the firm ? whether to declare dividend or not, whether to distribute
the earnings towards dividends or retained earnings ? does not affect the
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investment decision.M&M contend that the effect of dividend payments on shareholder
wealth is exactly offset by other means of financing. The dividend plus the
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"new" stock price after dilution exactly equals the stock price prior to the
dividend distribution.
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M&M and the total-value principle ensures that the sum of market valueplus current dividends of two firms identical in all respects other than dividend-
payout ratios will be the same. Investors can "create" any dividend policy they
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desire by selling shares when the dividend payout is too low or buying shares
when the dividend payout is excessive
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214
Drawbacks of MM hypothesis
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Though the critics of Miller Modigliani hypothesis agree with the view that thedividends are irrelevant, they dispute the validity of the findings by questioning
the assumptions used by Miller and Modigliani.
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According to them, dividends to matter mainly on account of the
uncertain future, the capital market imperfections and incidence of tax.
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Uncertain future
In a word of uncertain future, the dividends declared by a company based as
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they are on the judgements of the management on the future, convey theprediction about the prospects of the company. A higher dividend payout may
suggest that the future of the company, as judged by the management is very
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promising. A lower dividend payout thus may suggest that the future of the
company as considered by the management may is very uncertain.
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An associated argument is that dividends reduce uncertainty perceivedby the shareholder investors. Hence they prefer dividends to capital gains. So
shares with higher current dividend yields, other things being equal, attract a
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very high price in the market. However Miller and Modigliani maintain that
dividends merely serve as a substitute for the expected future earnings which
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really determine the value. They further argue dividend policy is irrelevant.Uncertainty and fluctuations
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Due to uncertainty share prices tend to fluctuate, sometimes very widely. Whenthe prices vary, conditions for conversion of current income into capital value
and vice versa may not be regarded as satisfactory by the investors. Some
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investors may be reluctant to sell a portion of their investment in a fluctuating if
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215they wish to enjoy more current income. Such investors would naturally prefer
and value more a higher dividend pay out. Some investors may be hesitant to
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buy shares in a fluctuating market if they wish to get a less current income and
therefore they may value more a lower dividend pay out.
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Additional equity at a lower price
Miller and Modigliani assume that a company can sell additional equity at the
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current market price. However, companies following the advice and suggestionsof investment bankers or merchant bankers offer additional equity at a price
lower than the current market price. This under pricing practice mostly stems
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out of market compulsions.
Issue costs
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Miller and Modigliani assumption is based on the basis that retained earnings or
dividend payouts can be replaced by external financing. This is possible when
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there is no issue cost. In the real word where issue costs are very high, theamount of external financing has to be greater than the amount of dividend
retained or paid. Due to this, when other things are equal, it is advantageous to
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retain earnings rather than pay dividends and resort to external finance.
Transaction costs
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In the absence of transaction costs, dividends and capital gains are equal. In such
a situation if a shareholder desires higher current income than the dividends
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received, he can sell a portion of his capital equal in value to the additionalcurrent income required. Likewise, if he wishes to enjoy lesser current income
than the dividends paid, he can buy additional shares equal in value to the
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difference between dividends received and the current income desired.
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216In a real world, transaction costs are incurred. Due to this, capital value cannot
be converted into an equal current income and vice versa.
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Tax considerationsMiller and Modigliani assume that the investors exhibit indifference between
dividends and capital appreciation. This may be true when the rate of taxation is
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the same for dividends received and capital appreciation enjoyed. In real life, the
taxes are different on dividends and capital appreciation. Tax on capital
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appreciation is lower than tax rate on dividends received. Due to this theinvestors may go in for capital appreciation
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Signaling HypothesisThe M&M dividend irrelevance theory assumes that all investors have the same
information regarding the firm's future earnings. In reality, however, different
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investors have different beliefs and some individuals have more information
than others. More specifically, the firm managers have better information about
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future earnings than outside investors.It has been observed that dividend increases are often accompanied by an
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increase in the stock price and dividend decreases are often accompanied by
stock price declines. These facts can be interpreted in two different ways:
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Investors prefer dividends to capital gains; unexpected dividend increases can beseen as signals of the quality of future earnings (signaling theory).
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217
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Dividend Relevance:Bird-in-the-Hand Argument
Myron Gordon and John Lintner have argued that shareholders are generally
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risk averse and prefers a dividend today to the promise of the greater dividend in
the future. Hence shareholder's required return is affected by a change in the
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dividend policy: Reducing today's dividend to invest in the firm at the initialrequired rate of return destroys value if shareholders' required rate of return
increases due to this decision.
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Walter's Model
Prof. James E. Walter argues that the choice of dividend policies almost always
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affect the value of the firm. His model is based on the following assumptions:1. Internal financing: The firm finances all investment through retained
earnings; i.e. debt or new equity is not issued.
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2. Constant return and cost of capital: the firm's rate of return, r , and its costof capital, k , are constant.
3. 100% payout or retention: All earnings are either distributed as dividends or
reinvested internally immediately.
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4. Infinite time: the firm has infinite life
Valuation Formula: Based on the above assumptions, Walter put forward the
following formula:
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P = DIV/k + [(EPS-DIV) r/k]/k, whereP = market price per share
DIV= dividend per share
EPS = earnings per share
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DIV-EPS= retained earnings per sharer = firm's average rate of return
k= firm's cost o capital or capitalisation rate
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218
The above equation is reveals that the market price per share is the sum of two
components:
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a. The first component (DIV/k) is the present value of an infinite stream of
dividends
And
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b. The second component [(EPS ? DIV) / k) / k] is the present value of the
infinite stream of capital appreciation. This is the capital gain when the firm
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retains the earnings within the firm.Could we note something peculiar here?
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? When the rate of return is greater than the cost of capital (r > k), the price pershare increases as the dividend payout ratio decreases.
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Such firms are recognized as growth firms. For them the internal rate ismore than the cost of capital (r > k). They expand rapidly because of available
investment opportunities resulting in returns higher than the cost of capital
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employed.
These firms will be able to reinvest earnings at a higher rate ( r ) than the
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shareholders' expected rate of return ( k ). They will maximize the market valueper share as they follow a policy of retaining earnings for reinvestment or
internal investment. This is also revealed by the Firm Y in our earlier table of
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calculations.
? When the rate of return is equal to the cost of capital (r=k), the price per share
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does not vary with changes in dividend payout ratio.Such firms are treated as normal firms in the market place. They do not have
unlimited surplus generating investment opportunities, yielding higher returns
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219
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than the cost of the capital. Once they exhaust all portfolios of super profitableopportunities, they earn just a return equal to the cost of capital on their
investments. Here the dividend policy has no impact on the market value per
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share.
? When the rate of return is lesser than the cost of capital (r< k), the price per
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share increases as the dividend payout ratio increases.Such firms are viewed as declining firms in the market place. They do
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not have any profitable portfolio of investment opportunities to invest theirearnings. These firms would only earn on their investments a rate of return less
than the minimum rate required by the investors and that can be obtained
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elsewhere in the normal circumstances.
Investors in such declining firms would require earnings distributed to
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them so that they can either spend it or invest elsewhere to get a higher rate ofreturn. The market value of such declining firms will be high only when it does
not retain any earnings at all.
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Thus in a nut shell,
? The optimum payout ratio for a growth firm (r > k) is nil.
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? The optimum payout ratio for a normal firm (r = k) is irrelevant
? The optimum payout ratio for a declining firm (r< k) is 100%
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The dividend policy of a firm depends on the availability of investment
opportunities and the relationship between the firm's internal rate of return and
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220
Despite its popularity does the Walter's model suffer from any limitation?
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As we have seen that this model can be useful to show the effects of dividend
policy on all equity firms under different assumptions about the rate of return.
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However the simplified nature of the model can lead to conclusions, which arenot true in general, though true for the model. Now we will analyse the model
critically on the following points:
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1. No External Financing
Walter's model of share valuation mixes dividend policy with investment policy
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of the firm. The model assumes that retained earnings finance the investment
opportunities of the firm only and no external financing-debt or equity-is used
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for the purpose. When such a situation exists, either the firm's investment or itsdividend policy or both will be suboptimum.
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2. Constant rate of returnWalter's model is based on the assumption that r is constant. In fact, r decreases
as more and more investment is made. This reflects the assumption that the most
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profitable investments are made and then the poorer investments are made. Thy
firm should stop at a point where r = k.
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3. Constant opportunity Cost of Capital, k
A firm's cost of capital or discount rate, k, does not remain constant; it changes
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directly with the risk. Thus, the present value of the firm's income movesinversely with the cost of capital. By assuming that the discount rate, k, is
constant, Walter's model abstracts from the effect of risk on the value of the
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firm.
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221Let us now try some problems to make the concept clearer.
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ExampleThe following information is available for ABC Ltd. Earnings per share : Rs. 4
Rate of return on investments : 18 percent Rate of return required by
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shareholders : 15 percent What will be the price per share as per the Walter
model if the payout ratio is 40 percent? 50 percent? 60 percent?
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Solution.According to the Walter model, P = [D + (E ? D) r/k] / k
Given E = Rs4, r = 0, and k = 0.15, the value of P for the three different payout
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ratios is as follow:Payout ratio P
40 percent = [1.6 + (2.40) 0.18/0.15] / 0.15 = Rs.29.87
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50 percent = [2.00 + (2.00) 0.18/0.15] / 0.15 = Rs29.33
60 percent = [2.40 + (1.60) 0.18/0.15] / 0.15 = Rs28.80
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Gordon's model and its relevanceGordon, Myron, J's model explicitly relates the market value of the firm to its
dividend policy. It is based on the following hypotheses
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An all equity firmA firm is an all equity firm and it has no debt.
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222
No external financing
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A firm has no external finance available for it. Therefore retained earningswould be used to fund or finance any expansion. Gordon's model also supports
dividend and investment policies.
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Constant return
The firm's internal rate of return, r, is constant.
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Constant cost of capital
The discount rate, k, is constant as in Walter's model. Gordon's model also
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overlooks and ignores the effect of a change in the firm's risk-class and its effecton the discount rate, k.
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Permanent earningsIt is assumed the firm and its stream of earnings are perpetual
No taxes
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It is also assumed that the firm does not pay tax on the premise that corporate
taxes do not exist
Constant retention
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The retention ratio (b)once decided is taken as constant. Thus, the growth rate is
constant forever as the internal rate of return is also assumed to be constant
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Cost of capital greater than growth rate
The discount rate, k, is greater than the above growth rate (g = br).
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Valuation Formula: Based on the above assumptions, Gordon has put forwardthe following formula:
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223P0 = EPS1 (1 ? b) / (k ? b)
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P0 = market price per share
EPS1 = expected earnings per share
b = retention ratio
r = firm's internal profitability
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k= firm's cost of capital or capitalisation rateExample
The following information is available for ABC Company. Earnings par share :
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Rs.5.00 Rate of return required by shareholders : 16 percent. Assuming that the
Gorden valuation model holds, what rate of return should be earned on
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investments to ensure that the market price is Rs.50 when the dividend payout is40 percent?
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SolutionAccording to the Gordon model P0 = EPS1 (1 ? b) / (k ? b)
Substituting in this equation, the various values given, we get
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50 = 5.0(1- 0.06) / (0.16 ? 0.6r)Solving this for r, we get
R = 0.20 = 20 percent
Hence, ABC Company must earn a rate of return of 20 percent on its
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investments.Implications for Corporate Policy
Establish a policy that will maximize shareholder wealth.
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Distribute excess funds to shareholders and stabilize the absolute amount ofdividends if necessary (passive).
Payouts greater than excess funds should occur only in an environment that has
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a net preference for dividends.224
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There is a positive value associated with a modest dividend. Could be due to
institutional restrictions or signaling effects.
Dividends in excess of the passive policy does not appear to lead to share price
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improvement because of taxes and flotation costs.Funding Needs of the Firm
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- Liquidity- Ability to Borrow
- Restrictions in Debt Contracts
- Control Other Issues to Consider
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Other Issues to Consider
Dividend Stability
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- Stability - maintaining the position of the firm's dividend payments in
relation to a trend line.
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- Earnings per share Dividends per shareInformation content -- management may be able to affect the expectations of
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investors through the informational content of dividends. A stable dividendsuggests that the company expects stable or growing dividends in the future.
Current income desires -- some investors who desire a specific periodic income
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will prefer a company with stable dividends to one with unstable dividends.
Institutional considerations -- a stable dividend may permit certain institutional
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investors to buy the common stock as they meet the requirements to be placedon the organizations "approved list."
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Taxes Preference TheoryDividends have greater tax consequences than capital gains. Investors in high
tax brackets may prefer capital gains, and thus a low payout ratio, to dividends.
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225
Also, taxes on capital gains are paid only when the stock is sold, which means
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that they can be deferred indefinitely.Clientele Effect
Different groups (clienteles) of stockholders prefer different dividend policies.
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This may be due to the tax treatment of dividends or because some investors are
seeking cash income while others want growth. Changing the dividend policy
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may force some stockholders to sell their shares.Market practice
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The market practices with regard to dividend declaration or policy are:- They maintain their dividend rate as it is preferred by the shareholders
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and the government- When earnings permit, they declare good dividends. They don't have a
policy to accumulate surplus and declare bonus share.
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- The main stake holder does not insist on any preferred dividend rate. It is
entirely decided the company and its management
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- Dividend declaration is governed by commercial considerations and attimes companies tend to exhibit conservative approach
- Companies reward shareholders generously ? both in dividends and
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bonus shares. They practice very high pay out
- Sometimes companies skip dividend when performance is poor or
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liquidity is poor to maintain financial strength- Companies maintain a fixed rate of dividend and issue bonus shares
when it is possible. The purpose is to ensure that the shareholders retain
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shares to enjoy capital gains- Some companies decide on the fair return to investors and maintain their
dividend at these levels
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- Companies declare as high a dividend as they can. This will result in
share price increase. The companies will then be in a position to raise
more funds in the capital markets either by going in for fresh capital
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issue- Companies declare a consistent and reasonable return to the
shareholders; this will enable them to plough back profits to take care of
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contingencies and to improve their capital base226
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- Since the shareholder is the king, companies reward them throughdividends, bonus and rights issue to get further investment / funds in
future for their growth plans.
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How do companies decide on dividend payments?
Mr John Lintner conducted a series of interaction with corporate leaders in the
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1950s to find out their dividend policies. And he observed that the followingfour facts do impact the dividend payments
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- firms have long run target dividend pay out ratio. Mature companies with
stable earnings generally pay out a high proportion of earnings. Growth
companies have low payouts, if they pay any dividends at all
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- corporate leaders focus on dividend changes rather than absolute levels.
For them paying 20% dividend is an important decision if they paid 10%
dividend last year. And it is not a big issue if the dividend pay out last
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year was also 20%- dividend changes follow shifts in long run, sustainable earnings. Leaders
smoothen out dividend payments. Temporary changes in earnings level
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is unlikely to affect dividend pay outs- leaders are reluctant to make dividend changes that may have to be
reversed in the future years. They would be concerned if they are to
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lower dividend pay out ratio.Thus Lintner's findings suggest that the dividend depends in part on the
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company's current earnings and in part on the dividend for the previous year,which in turn depended on that year's earnings and the dividend in the year
before.
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Check your progress
2.The following are several observations about typical corporate dividend
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policies. Which are true and which are false?--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
227i.
companies decide each year's dividend by looking at their capital
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expenditure requirements and then distributing whatever cash is leftover
ii.
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most companies have some idea of a target dividend distributionpercentage
iii.
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they set each year's dividend equal to the target pay out ratio timesthat year's earnings
iv.
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managers and investors seem more concerned when earnings areunexpectedly high for a year or two
v.
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companies undertake substantial share repurchases usually financethem with an offsetting reduction in cash dividends
3.Answer the following question twice, once assuming current tax law and once
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assuming the same rate of tax on dividends and capital gains.Suppose all investments offered the same expected return before tax. Consider
two equally risk shares ABC Ltd and XYZ Ltd. ABC Ltd pay a generous
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dividend and offer low expected capital gains. XYZ Ltd pay low dividends and
offer high expected capital gains. Which of the following investors would prefer
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the XYZ Ltd? What would prefer ABC Ltd? Which should not care? (Assumethat any stock purchased will be sold after one year)
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i.
pension fund
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ii.an individual
iii.
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a corporation
iv.
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a charitable endowmentv.
a security dealer
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To sum up.....
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- Dividends are earnings distributed to its share holders by a company- The (distribution) dividends expressed in percentage terms is called pay
out ratio
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- Retention ratio is there fore 1 minus pay out ratio
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228
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- A high pay out or a low retention ratio represents more dividends andtherefore less funds for growth and expansion
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- A low pay out or a high retention ratio represents less dividends and
therefore more funds for growth and expansion
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- Dividend policies affect the market value of the firm in the short run.
However, whether such dividend increase value or not will depend on
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the profitable investment avenues available to the company- Walter considers that it depends on the profitability of the investment
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avenues available to company and the cost of capital. If the company has
profitable avenues, its value will be very high and maximum when entire
earnings are retained
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- Another view is that due to uncertainty of capital gains, investors will
prefer dividends and more dividends. This implies that the value of
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shares in the market of a very high pay out and low retention companywill command premium
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- Miller and Modigliani do not subscribe to the view that dividends affectthe market value of the shares.
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- According to them, a trade off takes place between cash dividends and
issue of ordinary shares, if the investment policy of the company is firm
and given
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- They opine, the share price in the market will be adjusted by the amount
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of earnings distributed (or dividends distributed); and therefore theexisting share holder is in the same platform when compared with the
new investor ? neither better off nor worse off.
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- Miller and Modigliani assume perfect capital markets, no transaction
costs and no taxes
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- However, in practical markets, transaction costs exist and taxes are
levied. In such a scenario investors will prefer cash dividends.
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- Only tax exempt investors prefer high pay out companies. Investors in
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high tax brackets prefer high retention so that the share values could so229
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high to assure them capital gains. Normally capital gains are taxed lower
when compared with cash dividends
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- In countries like India, the investors are not taxed for the dividends
received by them. However capital gains are taxed for them. Hence there
is a possibility that the Indian investor may prefer dividend distribution
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- This reveals no clear picture or any consensus ? whether dividend
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matters or not.- Therefore a number of factors will have to taken into account before
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deciding about the dividend policy
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- Dividend can be distributed in cash or share form. Share form dividendis called bonus share.
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- Bonus share has a psychological appeal. They do not increase the value
of the share. Stock splits have the same effect as the bonus shares
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- Companies prefer to distribute cash dividends.
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- They prefer to finance their expansion and growth through issue of new
shares and / or borrowing.
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- This is based on the assumption that shareholders and entitled to and
they prefer period return on their investment
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- Many companies move over to long term pay out ratios systematically
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planning and working for it.- While working out the dividends they consider past distribution and also
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current and future earnings. Thus dividends have information contents
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- Companies would like to reward their shareholders through a stabledividend policy for reasons of certainty
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- Stable dividend policy does not mean and result in constant pay out ratio.
In this regard stable policy means predictable policy
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230
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- The company's dividend policy would depend on its funds requirementfor future growth, shareholder's desire and cash or liquidity availability
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- Shareholders expect that the company in the future will improve its
performance and it will reckon the dividend rate to the increased capital.
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- In this hope, the share price may increase.
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- If the actual performance is poor and no increase in dividend
distribution, the share price will decline.
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Key words - Bonus (Stock dividend), Buy back shares, Dividend, Dividend
yield, Pay out ratio, Retention Ratio, Share price and Share split
Key to Check your progress
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1.
(1-E, 2-D, 3-C, 4-A, 5-B)
2.
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i.
False ? the dividends depend on past dividends and current and future
earnings
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ii.
True ? The target does reflect growth opportunities and capital
expenditure requirements
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iii.
False ? Dividend is usually adjusted gradually to a target. The target is
based on current or future earnings multiplied by the target dividend
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distribution percentageiv.
True ? Dividends change convey information to investors
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v.
False ? Dividend is smoothed. Managers rarely increase regular
dividends temporarily. They may pay a special dividend, however
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vi.
False ? Dividend is rarely cut when repurchase is being made
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3.
Current tax law: i ? should not care, ii ? prefers XYZ Ltd, iii ? prefers ABC Ltd,
iv ? should not care and v ? should not care
Same rate of tax: An individual now should not care. Otherwise preferences do
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not change--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
231
Terminal questions
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1.What are the implications of Gordon's basic model?
2.State Walter's model. How is it derived?
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3.What are the implications of Walter model?4.Briefly derive Millar and Modigliani's dividend irrelevance theorem
5.What are the critics view of Miller and Modigliani hypothesis?
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6.A low dividend paying company keeps the shareholders' long term interest in
mind. This is mainly because the tax application on dividend income is
unfavourable when compared with tax application on capital gains. Do you
agree with this view? Briefly discuss the issues involved
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7.Investors have a strong preference for dividends. Do you agree?
8.What are the factors relevant for determining the pay out ratio? Briefly discuss
each of them
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9.Discuss the important provisions of company laws in India pertaining to
dividends
10.What are the motives for declaring
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- bonus shares
- share splits
- share repurchases
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11.Which types of companies would you expect to distribute a relatively high or
low proportion of current earnings?
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- high risk companies
- companies that have experienced an unexpected decline in profits
- companies that expect to experience a decline in profits
- growth companies with valuable future investment opportunities
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23212. An increasing number of companies are finding that the best investment they
can make these days is in themselves. Discuss this view. How is the desirability
of repurchase affected by company prospects and the price of its stock.
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13.It is well documented that share prices tend to go up when the companiesannounce increases in their dividend payouts. How, then, can it be said that
dividend policy is irrelevant?
14.It is good saying that I can sell shares to cover my cash needs, but that may
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mean selling at the bottom of the market. If the company pays a regulardividend, investors avoid that risk. Please respond to this statement.
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233
UNIT - V
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WORKING CAPITAL MANAGEMENTMeaning, concepts, types and Significance of working capital
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LESSON OUTLINE
Working capital management
Current
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assets
and
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Currentliabilities
LEARNING
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Fixed assets vs. current assets
OBJECTIVES
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Gross concepts and Net conceptsof Working Capital
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After reading this lesson you should
Permanent Working Capital and
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be able toTemporary Working Capital
Determinants of Working Capital
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Understand different concepts
Working capital under inflation
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used in the Working CapitalNegative working capital
Management and suit the best for
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the creditors.
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Identify
different
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components
used for calculation of Current
assets and Current Liabilities.
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Know preliminary steps to be
considered
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fordetermining
working capital requirements.
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234
Introduction:
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Effective financial management is concerned with the efficient use of important
economic resources, namely, capital funds. The capital funds can be used to
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invest in two forms like, 1.Fixed assets: A major portion of the capital fundsused for investing in purchase of fixed assets for permanent or long-term
purposes, for the purpose of diversification, expansion of business, renovation or
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modernization of plant and machinery and research and development and
2.Current assets: Rest of the portion of funds needed for short-term purposes
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like investing into assets for current operations of business is called workingcapital. For example, one who is managing a trading business has to arrange
funds regularly for, purchase of finished stock and keeping it in storeroom, and
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also find suitable customer to go for sales. On the other hand if it is a
manufacturing firm he has to arrange for funds continuously for, buying raw
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materials, keeping it for some time in store, then taking it for the process ofconverting into finished goods, and ultimately selling it to consumers.
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Fixed asset investments Vs current asset investments: Out of the two types of
investments, investing in the current operations of the business is more difficult
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and is a continuous process with more components of assets rather than the firstcase where the investment is one time or long-term in the business process.
Further, purchase of fixed assets can only be by long-term sources of funds. But
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both long-term as well as short-term sources of funds is used to finance current
assets. If so, what is the ratio of both long-term and short-term sources? Even if
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we decide the ratio, is it a fixed one? The answer is no. It is flexible on the basisof season like operational cycle, production policy, credit term, growth and
expansion, price level changes, etc. Improper working capital management can
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lead to business failure. Many profitable companies fail because their
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235management team fails to manage the working capital properly. They may be
profitable, but they are not able to pay the bills. Therefore management of
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working capital is not very easy and the financial manager takes very important
role in it. Hence, the following guidelines regarding concepts, components,
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types and determinants will be very useful to a financial manager.Concepts of Working Capital:
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There are two concepts of working capital namely gross concepts and netconcepts:
Gross Working Capital:
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According to this concept, whatever funds are invested are only in the current
assets. This concept expresses that working capital is an aggregate of current
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assets. The amount of current liabilities is not deducted from the total currentassets. This concept is also referred to as "Current Capital" or "Circulating
Capital".
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Net Working Capital:
What is net working capital? The term net working capital can be defined in two
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ways: (1) The most common definition of net working capital is the capitalrequired for running day-to-day operations of a business. It may be expressed as
excess of current assets over current liabilities. 2) Net working capital can
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alternatively be defined as a part of the current assets, which are financed with
long-term funds. For example, if the current assets is Rs. 100 and current
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liabilities is Rs. 75, then it implies Rs. 25 worth of current assets is financed bylong-term funds such as capital, reserves and surplus, term loans, debentures,
etc. On the other hand, if the current liability is Rs. 100 and current assets is Rs.
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75, then it implies Rs. 25 worth of short-terms funds is used for investing in the
fixed assets. This is known as negative working capital situation. This is not a
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236
favourable financial position. When the current assets are equal to current
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liabilities, it implies that there is no net working capital. This means no currentasset is being financed by long-term funds.
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Net Working Capital = Current assets ? Current liabilities.
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Table 1.1 Difference between gross and net working capital
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Gross concept of working capital
Net concept of working capital
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1. MeaningGross concept of working capital refers Net concept of working capital refers
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to the sum of the current assets to the difference between currentemployed in the business for day-to-day assets and current liabilities. Excess
operations and for utilizing the fixed of
current
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assets
over
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currentassets at the optimum level. In this liabilities is net working capital.
concept the total of the current liabilities Current assets ? Current liabilities
is not deducted from the total of current = Net Working Capital.
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assets.2. Components
Total current assets said in the
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Components of current assets
opposite side minus
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1. Cash and bank balances,1. Creditors for raw materials and
2. Sundry
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debtors
and
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Billsconsumable stores,
receivables,
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2. Bills payable,
3. Raw materials,
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3. Advance payment ? received from4. Work-in-progress,
customers,
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5. Finished Goods,
4. Deferred
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installmentspayable
6. Consumables stores,
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within a year,
7. Prepaid expenses,
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5. Indirect and other charges payable,8. Advances given to suppliers of 6. Deposits payable within a year,
raw materials.
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7. Term loan and debenture payable
within a year,
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8. Salary, wages, sales tax, Exciseduty, PPF, ESI outstanding,
9. Dividend and tax payable.
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3. Financing
Net working capital is financed only
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Generally, current assets are financed by long-term sources.
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237by both long-term sources and short-
term sources of funds.
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E.g. Share capital, Debtors, termloans.
Long-term funds
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Current Assets
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Short-term funds
E.g. Long-term sources:
Share capital, Debentures Term loans.
Short-term sources: Bank O.D., Cash
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Credit, Sundry creditors etc.,4. Sign Convention
Net working capital maybe positive
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Gross concept of working capital is or negative. Positive figure gives the
always a positive figure. It never comes company's
positive
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attitude.
as a negative figure. In other words, Negative figure gives the company's
without current assets a company cannot poor financial position.
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run. Hence, gross concept is nothing but Positive:the sum of all current assets.
Current Assets > Current Liabilities
Negative:
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Current Liabilities > Current Assets5. Nature of Information
The net working capital concept
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It emphasizes only on quantitative emphasizes on both the quantitative
nature. It never discloses the liquidity as well as qualitative nature, which
positions. Gross working capital are more relevant for managerial
concept results in mismanagement of decision-making.
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current assets.Current Ratio = Current Assets
Current Liabilities
Liquidity ratio = Liquid Assets
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Current LiabilitiesWhat are Current Assets?
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Assets, which can normally be converted into cash with in a year or within the
operating cycle, are grouped as current assets. In other words, current assets are
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resources that are in cash or will soon be converted into cash in `the ordinarycourse of business'. The current asset components are assets like cash,
temporary investments, raw materials, work in progress, accounts receivables
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(sundry debtors/ trade receivables/ bills receivables) and prepaid expenses.
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238What are Current Liabilities?
Liabilities, which are due for payment in the short-run, are classified as current
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liabilities. In other words, these liabilities are due within the accounting periodor the operating cycle of the business. Most of such liabilities are incurred in the
acquisition of materials or services forming part of the current assets. Current
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liabilities are commitments, which will soon require cash settlement in `the
ordinary course of business'. The current liability components are liabilities like
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accounts payable (sundry creditors/ bills payables/ trade payables), accruedliabilities (wages, salary, rents), estimated liabilities (income tax payable and
dividend payable).
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Table: 1.2 Components of current assets and current liabilities.
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CURRENT ASSETSCURRENT LIABILITIES
1. Cash and bank balances.
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1. Creditors for raw materials
2. Investment held in the form of
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consumables etc.,money
market instrument like,
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2. Advance
received
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fromTreasury bills, commercial bill,
customers.
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commercial paper and gilt edged
3. Deferred installments payable
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securities.within a year for repayment of term
3. Short-term fixed deposits maturing
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loans and debentures.
within a year.
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4. Interest, tax, dividend, salary4. Sundry Debtors.
and wages payable.
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5. Raw materials in godowns and in
5. Public deposits payable within
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transit.a year.
6. Stock of Work-in-progress.
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6. Unsecured
loans
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payable7. Finished goods in godown and in
within a year.
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transit.
8. Statutory liabilities like ESI,
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8. Consumable stores.PPF, Co-op dues, sales tax, Excise
9.
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Prepaid
expenses
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suchas duty etc.
salary, wages, tax etc.
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In order to study in detail about current assets, let us compare it with
fixed assets.
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239
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Table: 1.3 Difference between fixed assets and current assetsFIXED ASSETS
CURRENT ASSETS
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1. Significance:
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Any resources that can be used toAny asset that is convertible or
realizable into cash within a year or one
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generate revenue are called fixed manufacturing cycle, whichever is high,
is called current assets.
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assets. They are acquired for the--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Cashpurpose of increasing the revenues
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Raw
Debtors
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materials
and not for resale.
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Fi nished goods
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Work in progressEg. Land, building, plant and
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machinery, furniture, fixtures, etc.Manufacturing cycle
2. Nature:
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These assets are permanent in
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In contrast to fixed assets, thecurrent assets are short-term in nature.
nature. Life of these assets is usually
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The life of the assets are usually less
than one year.
more than one year.
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Life of Assets
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Limited
Unlimited
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E.g.: Furniture,
E.g.: Land
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Building, Plant andmachinery
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240
3. Earnings
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Basically these are the assets
Circulating
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the
current
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assetsdetermines the current earnings / profit
which determine the future earnings / of the firm. Earnings from current
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assets are direct rather than indirect.
profits of the firm. Benefits from
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Current assets = Cost of goods sold
fixed assets are indirect rather than turnover Average Current Assets
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direct.
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It is revenue expenditure. Theseitems are debited to trading account or
profit and loss account.
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Fixed assets = Cost of goods soldturnover Fixed Assets
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4. Nature of expenditure
It is a capital expenditure. The
assets that are purchased through
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capital expenditure are shown in the
Balance sheet on the assets side.
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5. Nature of financingThese assets are financed by
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These assets are financed by both
mainly long-term sources like share long-term funds and short-term funds.
capital, debentures, term loans, etc. A Usually in a firm, which has good
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company's fixed assets can never be liquidity position, 20% to 25% offinanced by short-term funds. If it is current assets must be financed by long-
so, the company's liquidity position term funds. The remaining assets are
becomes very bad. In that case financed by short-term funds like
current ratio must be less than one.
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sundry creditors, outstanding expenses,
bank overdraft, cash credit, etc
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241
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6. ComponentsCurrent assets are always tangible. But
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These assets may be tangible or for the management purpose theseintangible. Tangible assets have assets are divided into permanent
physical existence and generate goods current assets, and fluctuating current
and services (Land, building, plant assets and liquid assets. Permanent
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and machinery furniture). They are current asset are financed by long-termused for the production of goods and sources. Fluctuating current asset are
services. They are shown in the financed by short-term sources. Liquid
Balance sheet in accordance with the assets refer to current assets which can
cost concept. An asset, which cannot be converted into cash immediately or
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be seen with our naked eye and does at a short notice without diminution ofnot have any physical existence, is value.
called an intangible assets, goodwill,
Short-term funds
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patents, trade mark etc. Patents leads
Temporary C.A
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to invention, copy writes lead to scaleof literacy and trade mark represents
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use of certain symbols.--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Long-term fundsPermanent C.A}
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2427.Depreciation:
Cost of these assets is charged, in the
income statement of the year in which it
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Cost of these assets is spread over is incurred. Their life is very short and
their useful life. This is known as usually less than one year. Therefore
depreciation
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orexpired
cost. provision for deprecation of current
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Deprecation is provided due to wear assets does not arise
and tear or lapse of time. As a result of
charging deprecation of fixed cost, the
value of the fixed assets decline every
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year.
Cost of fixed asset minus
Depreciation = Book Value
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Expired cost Unexpired cost8. Cost components
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Cost of the fixed assets includes Cost of the current assets includes
actual purchase price plus fright purchase price plus transport charges.
charges plus errection and installation Errection and installation charges do not
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charges.arise.
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Types of working capital:Working capital can be divided into two categories on the basis of time:
1. Permanent, fixed or regular working capital,
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2. Temporary, variable, fluctuating, seasonal or specified working capital.Permanent working capital:
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This refers to minimum amount of investment required in all current assets at alltimes to carryout minimum level of activity. In other words, it represents the
current assets required over the entire life of the business. Tandon committee
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243
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has referred to this type of working capital as `Core current assets' or `Hard-coreworking capital'.
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i
t
a
l
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a
p
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C
g
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i
n
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rk
Fixed / permanent
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oW
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working capital
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0
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TimeFig 1.1: Fixed working capital
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remaining constant over time
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The need for investment in current assets may increase or decrease over a periodof time according to the level of production. Some amount of permanent
working capital remains in the business in one form or another. This is
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particularly important from the point of view of financing. Tandon Committee
has pointed out that this type of core current assets should be financed through
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long-term sources like capital, reserves and surplus, preference share capital,term loans, debentures, etc.
Leader in two-wheelers Hero Honda Ltd. and in four-wheelers Maruthi
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Udyog Ltd. keeping their model in each type in their showrooms are typical
examples of permanent working capital.
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244
Temporary Working Capital:
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--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
it
a
l
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Fluctuating
working capital
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a
p
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Cg
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in
r
k
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o
Fixed
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W
working capital
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Time
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Fig 1.2
: Working capital fluctuating over time
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Depending upon the production and sales, the need for working capitalover and above permanent working capital will change. The changing working
capital may also vary on account of seasonal changes or price level changes or
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unanticipated conditions. For example, raising the prices of materials, labour
rate and other expenses may lead to an increase in the amount of funds invested
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in the stock of raw materials, work-in-progress as well as in finished goods.Sometimes additional working capital may be required to face the cut-throat
competition in the market. Sometimes when the company is planning for special
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advertisement campaigns organised for promotional activities or increasing the
sales, additional working capital may have to be financed. All these extra capital
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needed to support the changing business activities are called temporary,fluctuating or variable working capital.
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Determination of working capital requirements:There are no uniform rules or formulae to determine the working capital
requirements in a firm. A firm should not plan its working capital neither too
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much nor too low. If it is too high it will affect profits. On the other hand if it is
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245too low, it will have liquidity problems. The total working capital requirements
is determined by a wide variety of factors. They also vary from time to time.
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Among the various factors, the following are necessary.
1. Nature of business:
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Nature of business
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Manufacturing
Trading
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Financial Institutions
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The working capital requirements of an organization are basicallyinfluenced by the nature of its business. The trading and financial institutions
require more working capital rather than fixed assets because these firms usually
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keep more varieties of stock to satisfy the varied demands of their customers.
The public utility service organisations require more fixed assets rather than
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working capital because they have cash sales only and they supply only servicesand not products. Thus, the amounts tied up with stock and debtors are almost
nil. Generally, manufacturing business needs, more fixed assets rather than
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working capital. Further, the working capital requirements also depend on the
seasonal products.
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2. Size of the business: Another important factor is the size of the business.Size of the business means scale of operation. If the operation is on a large
scale, it will need more working capital than a firm that has a small-scale
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operation.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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f
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t
o
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it
a
l
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n
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c
a
p
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gi
r
e
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mei
n
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Working capitalu
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r
k
e
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qo
R
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w
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0Level of operation
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246
Fig 1.3:Increasing operation
3.Operating cycle: The term "production cycle" or "manufacturing cycle"
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refers to the time involvement from cash to purchase of raw materials and
completion of finished goods and receipt of cash from sales. If the operating
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cycle requires a longer time span between cash to cash, the requirement ofworking capital will be more because of larger tie up of funds in all the
processes. If there is any delay in a particular process of sales or collection there
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will be further increase in the working capital requirements. A distillery is to
make a relatively heavy investment in working capital. A bakery will have a
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low working capital.Cash
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Purchase of rawBills receivable
materials
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--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Creation ofDebtors
A/c payable
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--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Finishedgoods
Work in progress
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Wages, salary, fuelFig 1.4:Operating cycle
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O= (R+W+F+D) ? CWhere O = Duration of operating cycle
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R = Raw material average storage period
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W = Average period of work-in-progress
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F = Finished goods average storage periodD = Debtors Collection period
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C = Creditors payment period
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247
4. Production policy: The requirements of working capital are also determined
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by production policy. When the demand for the product is seasonal, inventory
must be accumulated during the off-season period and this leads to more cost
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and risks. These firms, which manufacture variety of goods, will haveadvantages of keeping low working capital by adjusting the production
according to season.
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5. Turnover of Working capital: The speed of working capital is also
influenced by the requirements of working capital. If the turnover is high, the
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requirement of working capital is low and vice versa.Working Capital Turnover = Cost of goods sold
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Working capital
6. Credit Terms: The level of working capital is also determined by credit
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terms, which is granted to customers as well as available from its creditors.
More credit period allowed to debtors will result in high book debts, which leads
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to high working capital and more bad debts. On the other hand liberal creditterms available from creditors will lead to less working capital.
7. Growth and Expansion: As a company grows and expands logically, it
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requires a larger amount of working capital. Other things remaining same,
growing industries need more working capital than those that are static.
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Growing
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operation
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it
a
l
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a
p
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C
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g
Static operation
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in
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rk
o
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W
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0Level of operation
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Fig 1.5: Level of working capital for differentoperations
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248
8. Price level changes: Rising prices would necessitate the organization to
have more funds for maintaining the same level of activities. Raising the prices
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in material, labour and expenses without proportionate changes in selling price
will require more working capital. When a company raises its selling prices
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proportionally there will be no serious problem in the working capital.9. Operating efficiency: Though the company cannot control the rising price in
material, labour and expenses, it can make use of the assets at a maximum
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utilisation with reduced wastage and better coordination so that the requirement
of working capital is minimised.
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10. Other factors:Level of taxes: In this respect the management has no option. If the
government increases the tax liability very often, taxes have to be paid in
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advance on the basis of the profit on the current year and this will need more
working capital.
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Dividend policy: Availability of working capital will decrease if it has a highdividend payout ratio. Conversely, if the firm retains all the profits without
dividend, the availability of working capital will increase. In practice, although
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many firms earn profit, they do not declare dividend to augment the working
capital.
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Profit available to shareholder
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Retained by the companyHigh dividend payout ratio
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More availability in working capitalLow availability in working capital
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249
Significance of working capital:
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The basic objective of financial management is to maximize the shareholders'wealth. This is possible only when the company increases the profit. Higher
profits are possible only by way of increasing sales. However sales does not
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convert into cash instantaneously. So some amount of funds are required to meet
the time gap arrangement in order to sustain the sales activity, which is known
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as working capital. In case adequate working capital is not available for thisperiod, the company will not be in a position to sustain stocks as it is not in a
position to purchase raw materials, pay wages and other expenses required for
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manufacturing goods to be sold. Working capital, thus, is a life-blood of a
business. As a matter of fact, any organization, whether profit oriented or
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otherwise, will not be able to carry on day-to-day activities without adequateworking capital.
Problems of inadequate working capital:
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Proper management of working capital is very important for the success of an
enterprise. It should be neither large nor small, but at the optimum level. In
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case of inadequate working capital, a business may suffer the followingproblems.
1. Purchase of raw materials: Availing the cash discount from the
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suppliers (creditors) or on favourable credit terms may not be available from
creditors due to shortage of funds. For eg. This situation arises when the
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suppliers supply the goods on two months credit allowing 5% cash discount, if itis payable within the 30 days.
In the above situation, if a person buys material for Rs. 10,000 by availing the
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cash discount, he has to pay only Rs 9500 [10,000 ? 500]. This is possible only
with the help of adequate working capital.
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250
2. Credit rating: When the financial crisis continues due to shortage of
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funds [working capital], the credit worthiness of the company may be lost,resulting in poor credit rating. E.g. a company is having the liquid assets of Rs
20,000, current assets of Rs 30,000 and current liabilities of Rs 40,000. From
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the above data we can determine the short-term solvency with the help of the
following ratios 1. Liquid ratio 0.50 and 2. Current ratio 0.75.
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The standard ratios are 1:1 and 2:1 for liquidity ratio and current ratio
respectively. But seeing the above ratios, it shows that the short-term solvency is
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very poor. This clearly shows that the company is not in a position to repay the
short-term debt. This is due to inadequate working capital.
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3. Seizing business opportunity: Due to lack of adequate working capital,the company is not in a position to avail business opportunity during boom
period by increasing the production. This will result in loss of opportunity
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profit. E.g. During boom or seasonal period, generally the company will be
getting more contribution per unit by accepting special orders or by increasing
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the production, matching with high demand. This opportunity can be availedonly if it is having sufficient amount of working capital.
4. Duration of operating Cycle: The duration of operating cycle is to be
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extended due to inadequate working capital. E.g. If the company's duration of
operating cycle is 45 days when a company is having sufficient amount of
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working capital, due to delay in getting the material from the suppliers and delayin the production process, it will have to extend the duration of operating cycle.
Consequently, this results in low turnover and low profit.
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5. Maintenance of plant and machinery: Due to lack of adequate working
capital, plant and machinery and fixed assets cannot be repaired, renovated,
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maintained or modernized in an appropriate time. This results in non-utilisationof fixed assets. Moreover, inadequate cash and bank balances will curtail
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251
production facilities. Consequently, it leads to low fixed assets turnover ratio.
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E.g. Cost of goods sold is Rs 2,40,000 fixed assets is Rs 60,000 and averageindustrial fixed assets turnover ratio is 10 times.
Fixed assets turnover ratio= Cost of sales = 2,40,000 = 4 times
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Fixed assets 60,000
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When industrial average ratio is 10 times and the actual turnover ratio is 4
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times, it is understood that the fixed assets are not utilized to the maximum.6. Higher interest: In order to account for the emergency working capital
fund, the company has to pay higher rate of interest for arranging either short-
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term or long-term loans.
7. Low Return on Investment (ROI): Inadequate working capital will
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reduce the working capital turnover, which results in low return on investment.8. Liquidity verses profitability: Inadequate working capital may result in
stock out of cost, reduced sales, loss of future sales, loss of customers, loss of
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goodwill, down time cost, idle labour, idle production and finally results in
lower profitability.
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9. Dividend policy: A study of dividend policy cannot be possible unlessand otherwise the organization has sufficient available funds.
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In the absence of proper planning and control, the company's inadequate
working capital will cause the above said problems.
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Working capital management under inflation:
One of the most important areas in the day-to-day management of working
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capital includes all the short term assets (current assets) used in daily operations.Such management will have more significance during the time of inflation. The
following measures can be applied to control the working capital during the
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period of inflation.
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252Cost control: Cost control aims at maintaining the costs in accordance with the
predetermined cost. According to this concept, the management aims at
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material, labour and other expenses.Cost reduction: Cost reduction aims at exploring the possibilities of using
alternative raw materials without affecting the quality of the products by
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adoptions of new technology for the improved quality of products and reducing
the cost.
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Large-scale production: Within the given capacities the management canincrease the productivity by proper cost control strategy. Increased price due to
inflation may compensate with reduction in fixed cost when production is
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increased.
Management cost: Since management cost is a fixed, period cost, the
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maximum possible use of facilities already created must be ensured.Operating cycle: The time gap between purchase of inventory and converting
the material into cash is known as operating cycle. The management attempts to
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decrease the duration of operating cycle during inflation.
Turnover: Turnover ratio indicates how the capitals are effectively used in
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order to increase the sales during the purchase period. By increasing the rate ofrotation there will be an increase in sales which in turn will increase the profit.
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Turnover ratio = Sales
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Capital employed
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Improvement of turnover includes improvement in fixed assets turnoverratio and working capital turnover ratio, which are elements of the capital
employed.
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Capital employed = Fixed assets + working capital.
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253
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Creditors turnover ratio:
It indicates the speed with which the payments are made to credit purchases.
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This can be computed as follows:--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Creditors payment period = Average Creditors x 365
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Credit purchaseHigher creditors turnover ratio with a lower payment period shows that the
creditors are paid promptly or even earlier. During inflation the company with
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help of bargaining power and good relation they can ask to increase the payment
period, trade discount, cash discount, etc.
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Stock turnover ratio:A low stock turnover ratio may indicate a slow moving inventory suffering
from low sales force. On the contrary, higher stock turnover ratio shows better
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performance of the company. Under this situation the company may keep
relatively small amount of funds as resources. Thus during inflation the
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company tries to keep high stock turnover ratio.Stock turnover ratio = Cost of goods sold
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Average stock
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This should be more during inflation than the ordinary period.Debtors' turnover:
Debtors constitute an important component of the working capital and therefore
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the quality of debtors to a great extent determines the liquidity position during
inflation. A higher ratio gives a lower collection period and a low ratio gives a
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254
longer collection period. During inflation, the management tries to keep a high
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turnover ratio.Other factors:
The management can try to decrease the overhead expenses like administrative,
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selling and distributing expenses. Further the management should be very
careful in sanctioning any new expenditure belonging to the cost areas. The
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managers should match the cash inflow with cash outflow for future periodthrough cash budgeting.
What is negative working capital and how it arises? Negative working capital
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is where the organization uses supplier credit or customer prepayment to fund
their day-to-day needs. Organization with negative working capital use the
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money from their customer with which to invest and to pay suppliers. Banks andfinancial services, retailers, distributors, industries with cash sales or advance
payments on signature of contract are some of the firms which may have low or
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negative working capital / sales % figures. Competition is fiercest among
industries with low or negative working capital / sales % figures. Financial entry
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barriers are lower and these industries are easier to expand. However, profitmargins are often lower because of the competition (but not always!) and the
failure rate among such industries in developed countries is usually higher.
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Banks are attracted to industries with low or negative working capital/ sales %
figure s cash and profits are more quickly. Entrepreneurs are attracted to
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industries with low or negative working capital % figures. The customers,255
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suppliers and authors of books publishers also want to operate to a low or
negative working capital/ sales %.
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Key WordsGross current assets means the aggregate of all current assets including cash
Net current assets means the aggregate of all current assets less current
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liabilities. This is same as working capital.
Fixed working capital is the amount that remains more or less permanently
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invested as working capital in business.Fluctuating working capital is the amount of working capital over and above
the fixed amount of working capital. It may keep on fluctuating from period to
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period depending upon several factors.
Current liabilities, which are due for payment in the short run, say one year.
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Self-assessment Questions/Exercises1. What are current assets and current liabilities? Explain with suitable
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examples.2. Discuss the different concepts of working capital.
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3. Discuss the significance of working capital management in business
enterprises.
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4. Distinguish between fixed and fluctuating working capital. What is the
significance of such distinction in financing working capital of an
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enterprise?--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
256
5. Which concept of working capital is more suitable to creditors for
analysis to provide working capital finance and why?
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6. What are the factors, which determines the working capital
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requirements?7. What are the problems faced by a firm due to inadequate working
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capital?
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8. During inflation pressure how can a finance managers control the needsof increasing working capital.
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9. Current assets are financed by both long - term and short - term funds
while fixed assets are long - term funds only. Explain.
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10. What is meant by negative working capital? Also explain situations in
which it arises.
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257
LESSON 2
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Operating Cycle and Estimation of Working Capital
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LESSON OUTLINE
1. Operating cycle
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a. Trading cycle
b. Manufacturing cycle
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2. Estimation of WorkingLEARNING OBJECTIVES
Capital requirements
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After reading this lesson you should be
a. For trading firm
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able to
b. For manufacturing
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organizationUnderstand what is operating
cycle for trading and manufacturing
firms.
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Know what are the possiblemethods to reduce the operating
cycle period to increase the sales.
Calculate operating cycle period.
Estimate
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working
capital
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requirementsfor
trading
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and
manufacturing concerns.
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258OPERATING CYCLE:
This is the chronological sequence of events in a manufacturing company in
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regard to working capital. We know that working capital is the excess of currentassets over current liabilities. In reality such excess of current assets over current
liabilities may be either more or less than the working capital requirement of the
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company. Accordingly it is necessary to calculate the working capital of the
company. This is illustrated with an example. Such computation of working
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capital requirement may also be necessary for planning increase of sales fromexisting level.
The operating cycle is the length of time for a company to acquire
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materials, produce the products, sell the products, and collect the proceeds from
customers. The normal operating cycle is the average length of time for a
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company to acquire materials, produce the products and collect the proceedsfrom customers.
From the above it is very clear that the working capital is required to
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meet the time-gap between the raw materials and actual realisation of stocks.
This time gap is technically termed as operating cycle or working capital cycle.
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The operating cycle can be sub-divided into two on the basis of the nature of thebusiness namely trading cycle and manufacturing cycle.
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Operating cycle
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Trading cycle for
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Manufacturing cycle for manufacturingtrading business
business
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TRADING CYCLE:
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Trading business does not involve any manufacturing activities. Their activitiesare limited to buying finished goods and selling the same to consumers.
Therefore operating cycle requires a short time span behaviour cash to cash, the
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259
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requirement of working capital will be low because very less number ofprocesses in the operation is given below:
Cash Inventories Debtors Bills Receivable Cash
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In the case of trading firm the operating cycle includes time required to
convert (1) Cash into inventories (2) Inventories into debtors (3) Debtors into
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cash.
In the case of financing firm, the operating cycle is still less when
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compared to trading business. Its operating cycle includes time taken for (1)Conversion of cash into suitable borrowers and (2) Borrowers into cash.
Example 1:
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You have invested Rs.50,000 in your company on 1.1.2006 for buying and
selling of color TVs assuming:
1. Inventory costing Rs. 50,000 is purchased at the beginning of each
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month.
2. All of the TVs were sold at the end of each month on cash for
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Rs. 60,0001. What is the operating cycle of the company?
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The answer is 30 days--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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Operating cycle
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Pu r c
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h a s e
o f
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TV s f
o r c a s
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h
Sa
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leof TVs for cash
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Time 30 days2. If the sales are made on account (credit) of 30 days terms what is the
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operating cycle of the company?--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
The answer is 60 days
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Pu
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r c
h
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as
e
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o f
T
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Vs
Sa
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le
of
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TV
s
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f
o r
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Ca s
h
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c
o
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llec
t
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e
d
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fr
o
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m
f
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or
c
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a
s
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hcredit
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customers
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Time 30 days
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Time 30 days--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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260
3. Suppose when the suppliers allow 20 days term and sales are made an
account of 60 days' term. What is the operating cycle of the company?
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The answer is 70 days (30+60-20)
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Cash collected from
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Suppliers supply
Sale of TVs on
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TVs on credit
account
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customers--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
-20 days +30 days + 60 daysIn the above all cases one could see how much retained earnings are available
for dividends.
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Importance of operating cycle:
If a company can shorten the operating cycle, cash can accumulate more
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quickly, and due to the time value of money, there should be a positive impacton the share value. Holding everything else constant, an investor would prefer a
company with a short operating cycle to a similar company with a longer
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operational cycle.
The formula to calculate operating cycle:
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Operating cycle = Age of inventory + collection periodNet operating cycle = Age of inventory + collection period ? deferred payments
For calculating net operating cycle, various conversion periods may be
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calculated as follows:Raw material cycle period (RMCP)
= (Average Raw material stock/Total raw material Consumable) x 365
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Working progress cycle period (WPCP)
= (Average work in progress/Total cost of Production) x 365
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Finished goods cycle period (FGCP)= (Average finished goods/Total cost of goods Sold) x 365
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261
Accounts receivable cycle period (ARCP)
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= (Average Account receivable/Total of sales) x 365Accounts payable cycle period (APCP)
= (Average account payable/Total credit purchase) x 365
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where, Total credit purchase = cost of goods sold + ending inventory ?beginning of inventory
For above calculations, the following points are essential:
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1. The average value is the average of opening balance and closing balanceof the respective items. In case the opening balance is not available, only the
closing balance is taken as the average.
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2. The figure 365 represents number of days in a year. Sometimes even 360
days are considered.
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3. The calculation of RMCP, WPCP and FGCP the denomination is takenas the total cost raw material consumable, total cost of production total, cost of
goods sold respectively since they form respective end products.
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On the basis of the above, the operating cycle period:
Total operating cycle period (TOCP) = RMCP + WPCP + FGCP + ARCP
Net operating cycle period(NOCP) = TOCP-DP(deferred payment)(APCP)
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The operating cycle for individual components are not constant in the
growth of the business. They keep on changing from time to time, particularly
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the Receivable Cycle Period and the Deferred Payment. But the company triesto retain the Net Operating Cycle Period as constant or even less by applying
some requirements such as inventory control and latest technology in
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production. Therefore regular attention on the firm's operating cycle for a period
with the previous period and with that of the industrial average cycle period may
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help in maintaining and controlling the length of the operating cycle.--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
262
Example 2:
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Gee Pee, a trading organization has supplied the following information.Calculate the operating period.
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Amount(Rs.)
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Total sales
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500 lakhsCost elements are Materials 70%, overheads 20%
Average stock of merchandise inventory
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10 lakhs
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Average debtors
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25 lakhsAverage creditors
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14.6 lakhsSolution:
Merchandise inventory holding period (10/450)x360 = 8 days
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Debtors holding period (25/500)x360 = 18 daysLess: Creditors availing period 14.6/350x360 = (15) days
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11 days
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Note: Total cost of merchandise inventory = 500 x (90 /100) = 450Total cost of material purchased = 500 x (70 / 100) = 350
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Example 3:
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From the following data of a trading company compute the realisation period
(operating cycle)
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Rs. in lakhs
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Average inventories
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13.0
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Average Debtors 22.5
Average Creditors 14.0
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Purchases 240.0
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Cost of goods sold 260.0
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Sales 300.0
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Solution:
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Inventory holding period
(13/260)x360 = 18 days
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Debtors holding period
(22.5/300)x360 = 27 days
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Less:Availing creditors extending loan period(14/240)x360 = (21) days
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Realisation period 24 daysMANUFACTURING CYCLE:
In the case of manufacturing company the operating cycle refers to the time
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involvement from cash through the following events and again leading to
collection of cash.
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263
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Cash Purchase of raw materials
Work-in-progress
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Finished goods DebtorsBills receivable Cash
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Operating cycle of a manufacturing concern starts from cash to purchase
of raw materials, conversion of work in progress into finished goods, conversion
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of finished goods into Bills Receivable and conversion of Bills Receivable intocash. In the other words the operating cycle is the number of days from cash to
inventory to accounts receivable back to cash. The operating cycle denotes how
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long cash is tied up in inventories and receivables. If the operating cycle requires
a longer time span between cash to cash, the requirement of working capital will
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be more because of the huge funds required in all the process. If there is anydelay in a particular process there will be further increase in the working capital
requirement. A long operating cycle means that less cash is available to meet
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short-term allegations. A distillery has to make a heavy investment in working
capital rather than a bakery, which has a low working capital.
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Forecasting/estimate of working capital requirement"Working capital is the life-blood and the controlling nerve centre of a
business". No business can run successfully without an adequate amount of
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working capital. To avoid the shortage in working capital, an estimate of
working capital requirements should be made in advance so that arrangements
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can be made to procure adequate working capital.Suggested proforma for estimation of working capital requirements are
given below:
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Statement of working capital requirements
Amount(Rs.) Amount(Rs.)
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Current Assets1.Stock of Raw materials
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
-------
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
2.Work-in-progress (for ... months)--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
a) Raw materials
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--------264
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
b) Direct labour--------
c) Overheads
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-------- -------
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3.Stock of finished goods -------4.Debtors
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-------Less: Current liabilities
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--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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i. Creditors
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--------
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ii. Lag in payment of expenses
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--------
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iii. Others (if any)
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-------- -------
Working capital (C.A.- C.L.) -------
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Add: Provision/Margin for contingencies-------
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Net working capital required = -------
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Notes:
Profits should be ignored while calculating working capital requirements for the
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following reasons:Profits may or may not be used as working capital.
Even if profits are to be used for working capital it has to be reduced by
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the amount of income tax, drawings, dividends paid etc.Calculation of work-in progress depends upon its degree of completion as
regards to material, labour and overheads. However, if nothing is given in
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a question as regards to the degree of completion, we suggest the studentsto take 100% cost of material, labour and overheads.
Calculation for stocks of finished goods and debtors should be made at
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cost unless otherwise asked in the question.Example 4.
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You are provided with the following information in respect of XYZ Ltd. For the
ensuing year:
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Production for the year--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
69,000 units
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Finished goods in store--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
3 months
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Raw material in store--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
2 monthsProduction process
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
1 month
Credit allowed by creditors
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--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
2 months
Credit given to debtors
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--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
3 months
Selling price per unit
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs. 50
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265
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Raw material--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
50% of selling price
Direct wages
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
10% of selling price
Overheads
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
20% of selling price
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There is a regular production and sales cycle and wages and overheadsaccrue evenly. Wages are paid in the next month of accrual. Material is
introduced in the beginning of production cycle.
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You are required to find out:
(1) Its working capital requirement
(2) Its permissible bank borrowing as per 1st and 2nd method of lending.
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(Please refer lesson 4 unit 5)
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Solution:
-Statement of working capital requirement:
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Current assets
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs.
Raw materials stock (69000 x 25 x 2/12)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
2,87,000
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Working progress:
1. Raw materials (69,000 x 25 x 1/2) 1,43,750
2. Direct wages (69,000 x 5 x 1/24) 14,375
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3. Overhead (69,000 x 10 x 1/24)28,750
1,86,875
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Finished goods: (69000x40x3/12)
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6,90,000
Debtors: (69,000x40x3/12)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
6,90,000--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
18,54,375
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Current Liabilities:Creditors Raw materials 69,000 x25x2/12 2,87,500
Outstanding Wages 69,000 x 5 x 1/12 28,750
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3,16,250
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Working capital requirement
= 15,38,125
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Assumptions: Debtors are taken at cost price not at selling price.
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Working capital requirement
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First lending methodAmount(Rs.) Second lending method Amount(Rs.)
Working
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capital
Working
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capitalrequirement
15,38,125
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requirement
15,38,125
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Less: 25% Margin ofLess: 25% Margin
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above
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3,84,531of current asset
4,63,594
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1854375 x 25/100
Bank Borrowing
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11,53,594Bank Borrowing
10,74,531
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266
(The above calculations are made on the basis of Tandon Committee. Please
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refer lesson 4)Example 5
A proforma cost sheet of a company provides the following particular:
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Element of cost:
Material
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
40%
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Direct labour--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
20%Overheads
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
20%
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The following further particular are available:
(a) It is proposed to maintain a level of activity of 2,00,000 Units
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(b) Selling price is Rs. 12 per unit.(c) Raw material are expected to remain in stores for an average period of
one month
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(d) Materials will be in process, on an average for half a month.(e) Finished goods are required to be in stock for an average period of one
month.
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(f) Credit allowed to debtors is two months(g) Credit allowed by suppliers is one month.
You may assume that sales and production follow a consistent pattern.
You are required to prepare a statement of working capital requirement,
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a forecast profit and loss account and balance sheet of the companyassuming that:
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Amount(Rs.)
Share capital
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
15,00,0008% Debentures
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
2,00,000
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Fixed Asset
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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13,00,000Solution:
Statement of working capital
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Particular
Rs.
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Rs.Current asset:
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Stock of raw material (1 month) 24,00,000 X40
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80,000
100 x 12
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--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Work-in-progress (1/2 month):--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Material 24,00,000 x 40
40,000
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100 x 24
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Labour 24,00,000 x 20
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
20,000100 x 24
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Overheads 24,00,000 x 2020,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
100 x 24
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80,000267
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Stock of finished goods (1 month)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Material 24,00,000 x 40
80,000
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100 x 12
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Labour 24,00,000 x 20
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
40,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
100 x 12--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Overheads 24,00,000 x 20
40,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
100 x 12
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
1,60,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Debtors (2 months) at cost
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Material1,60,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Labour
80,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Overheads
80,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Less: Current Liabilities
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
3,20,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
6,40,000
Creditors (1 month) for raw material 24,00,000 x40
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100 x 12
80,000
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268
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LESSON 3
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Sources of working capital
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LESSON OUTLINE1.Permanent sources
2.Long-term sources
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3.Medium-term sources4.Short-term sources
A. Spontaneous sources
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a) Trade crediti. Open account
ii. Bills payable
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b) Accrued expenses
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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B. Bank loansa) Cash credit
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After reading this lesson you should be
b) Overdraft
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able to tellc) Bill purchasing and bill
How to finance working capital
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discounting
through permanent and long-term
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C. Other sourcessources?
a) Factoring
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How short-term sources are cheaper
i. Recourse factoring
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than long-term sources?ii. Non-recourse
What is working capital term loan
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
factoring
and how it works?
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iii. Others ? AdvancedWhat are the different short-term
and maturity
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sources of working capital?
factoring
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How factoring becomes an importantb) Commercial papers
source of working capital and how it
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c) Intercorporate deposits
works?
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269
Introduction:
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Once the financial manager has estimated to invest in current assets like raw
material, working-in-progress, finished goods, debtors etc. the next step is, he
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must arrange for funds for working capital. Working capital management refersnot only to estimating working capital requirement but also includes the process
of bifurcating the total working capital requirement into permanent working
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capital and temporary working capital. The permanent working capital should be
financed by arranging funds from long-term sources such as issue of shares,
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debentures and long-term loans. Financing of working capital from long termresources provide the following benefits:
(1) It reduces risk, since the need to repay loans at frequent intervals is
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eliminated.
(2) It increases liquidity since the firms need not worry about the
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payment of these funds in the near future.Temporary WC
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Amount of
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Short Term sourcesWorking
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Capital
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Permanent WC
Long Term sources
Total WC
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Time
The temporary working capital requirement should be financed from
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
short-term sources such as borrowing loan from banks, creditors, factoring etc.
The financing of working capital through short-term sources of funds has the
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benefit of lower cost and establishing close relationship with the banks.270
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The finance manager has to make use of both long-term and short-termsources of funds in a way that the overall cost of working capital is the lowest
and the funds are available on time and for the period they are really needed.
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Before going to see in detail about working capital finance, first let us see what
are the different sources of finance available for the company and also see what
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are the sources particularly available to working capital.Sources of working capital
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Permanent sources Long-term sources
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Medium-term sources Short-term sources(a) Share capital
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
(a) Rede.Pref. Shares
(a) Working capital term
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
(b) Retained Earnings (b) Debenturesloans
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
(c) Long-term loans
(b) Public fixed deposits
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
(c) Medium term loans
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Chart showing different sources of finance available for working capital
Now let us discuss in detail the various sources of finance, which are
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mainly available for working capital and their relative merits and demerits. The
financial manager must look into different aspects such as cost, flexibility,
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reliability and restrictions whenever he selects sources of finance.1.Financing through permanent sources:
Permanent sources of working capital should be provided in such a manner that
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the enterprise might have its uninterrupted use for an unlimited duration. It can
be conveniently financed by the following sources:
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271
a. Issue of shares:
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Issue of shares is the most important sources for raising the permanent workingcapital. Shares are of two types ? Equity shares and preference shares.
Maximum amount of permanent working capital should be raised by the issue of
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equity shares.
b. Retained earnings:
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It means the reinvestment by a concern of its surplus earning in its business.This is, a part of the earned profits may be ploughed back by the firm, in
meeting their working capital needs. It is an internal source of finance and is
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most suitable.
2. Financing through long-term sources:
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The fund, which is required for 7 to 20 years and above, is called long-termfunds. Financing of working capital through long-term sources provides
reduction of risk and increases the liquidity. These long-term sources can be
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
raised through the following methods:
a. Redeemable preference shares:
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Preference shares are those, which carry the following preferential rights overother classes of shares:
(i) A preferential right to payment of fixed dividend over equity shareholder.
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(ii) A preferential right to repayment of capital in case of winding up of thecompany to other classes of shares.
Redeemable preference shares are those, which can be redeemed during the
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lifetime of the company. According to the companies (Amendment) Act, 1996,272
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w.e.f. March 1997, no company can now issue preference shares, which areirredeemable or are redeemable after 20 years from the date of their issue.
b. Debentures:
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A debenture is an instrument issued by the company acknowledging its debt to
its holder. It is also an important source of long-term working capital. The firm
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issuing debenture also enjoys a number of benefits, such as trading on equity,retention of control, tax benefit etc.
c. Long-term loans:
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Financing institutions such as commercial banks, life insurance corporation of
India, industrial finance corporation of India, state financial corporations,
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industrial development bank of India etc. provide long-term and medium-termloans. This type of finance is ordinarily repayable in instalments.
3. Financing through medium-term sources.
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The funds, which are basically required for a period of 2 to 5 years, are called
medium-term funds. Previously the commercial banks were concentrating on
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
short-term and medium-term loans in the form of working capital loans whereasthe financial institutions like IDBI, ICICI, IFCI were concentrating on long-term
funds. But, recently, the commercial banks have also entered into providing
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medium-term as well as long-term funds to trade and industry, either
independently, or sometimes, in collaboration with one or more specialized
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financing institutions. The medium-term funds can be raised through thefollowing methods:
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273
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a. Working capital term loans:It refers to the quantum of credit that a bank should disburse. Tandon committee
suggested three methods of lending which banks generally follow the second
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method of lending. As per this method, the borrower will have to contribute
25% of the total current assets. The remaining working capital gap will be
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funded by bank borrowings. Where borrower fails to bring such additionalfunds, the banks usually sanction "Working capital term loans" which the
borrower is to repay in a phased manner. Such repayment time allowed is a
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maximum of five years. To put a pressure on the borrower for early repayment
of such loan, the banks generally charge 1% higher rate on such loans over and
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above rates charged in cash credit account. However, such excess charge ofinterest is entirely in the jurisdiction of the bank, which may discriminate
between borrowers depending financial status and future project of the
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concerned borrower.
The concept of "Working capital term loan" has been introduced by
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Chore committee, which was appointed for reviewing working capital lendingby banks subsequent to introduction of recommendation of Tandon committee.
b. Public fixed deposits:
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Public deposits are the fixed deposits accepted by a business enterprise directly
from public deposit as source finance have a large number of advantages such as
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simple and convenient source of finance, Taxation benefits, inexpensive sourcesof finance etc.
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274c. Medium term loans:
These loans are generally provided by banks or financial institutions. The period
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of loans vary from 3 to 7 years. The investment of these loans from funds is inplant and machinery, vehicle and certain other equipments. The procedures of
granting such loan may not be as high as in case of long-term loans. Besides, in
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most cases consortium finance may not be required. In case of long-terms, the
funds are invested in freehold land or in long leased land since their period of
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loan vary from 7 years to 20 years. Thus the difference between medium termloans and long-term loans may be termed as of degree rather than of kind.
4. Financing working capital through short-term sources:
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Funds available for a period of one year or less are called short-term sources of
finance. They are raised from sources, which can provide funds only for short
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period quickly, and its cost is less than the funds raised from long-term sources.These funds are usually met by taking short-term loans or getting the bills
discounting from the commercial banks. Spontaneous sources and bank loans
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are important sources of short-term funds. They are explained in detail below:
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Short-term Sources--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Spontaneous sources
Bank Loans
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Other SourcesI. Spontaneous Sources:
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Some sources of funds, which are created during the course of normal business
activity have zero cost and are termed as spontaneous sources. For example
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275
suppliers supply goods, employees provide services where the payment are
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made at a latter stage. To an extent, the payment is delayed and the funds are
made available to the firm. These are called trade liabilities or current liabilities.
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The two important spontaneous sources of short-term finance are (a). Tradecredit and (b). Outstanding expenses / accrued expenses. These are explained in
detail below:
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Spontaneous sources
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Trade credit
Outstanding /
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accrued expenses
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Open AccountBills Payable
1.Salary
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2.Wages3. Sales tax
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
4. Interest on debentures5. Deposit by customers
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A. Trade credit:
The credit extended in connection with the goods purchased for resale by a
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retailer or a wholesaler for materials used by manufacturers in producing itsproducts is called the trade credit.
Trade credit is a form of short-term financing common is almost all types
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of business firm. As a matter of fact, it is the largest source of short-term funds.
The amount of such financing depends on the volume of purchase and the
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payment timings. Small and new firms are usually more dependent on the tradecredit, as they find it difficult to obtain funds from other sources. This trade
credit may be extended to the customers in the form of (a) An opening account
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credit and (b) Acceptance credit management / bills payable.
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276(i) Open account:
Trade credit is mostly an informal arrangement, and is granted on an open
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account basis. Open account is usually extended only after the seller conducts afairly extensive investigation of the buyer's standard and reputation. In the case
of open account credit arrangement the buyer does not sign any formal debt
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instrument as an evidence of the amount due by him to the seller. The only
evidence is the copy of the invoice that goods have been delivered. Open
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account trade credit appears as Sundry creditors on the buyer's balance sheet inthe liability side.
(ii) Acceptance credit / Bills payable:
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Trade credit may also take the form of Bills payable. In such a case the buyer
accepts a bill of exchange or gives a promissory note for the amount due by him
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to the seller. This bill has specified future date, and is usually used when thesupplier is less sure about buyers willingness and ability to pay or when the
suppliers wants cash by discounting the bill from a bank. Thus, it is an
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arrangement by which the indebtness of the buyer is recognized formally. This
appears in the buyer's balance sheet as accounts payable or bills payable.
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Merits of trade credit:1. Easy availability: Unlike other sources of finance trade credit as a
source of finance relatively easy to obtain. The easy availability is very
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important in the case of small and medium firms where they cannot raise funds
in the capital market.
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277
2. Flexibility: The trade credit increases or decreases depending upon the
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growth of the firm. Moreover it need not pledge securities or adhere to strict
payment schedule.
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3. Informality: Trade credit is an informal spontaneous source of finance.It does not require to sign in the negotiable instruments to obtain the credit.
Demerits of trade credit:
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1. Increased cost: The trade credit is usually very high when compared to
cash sales. The seller while fixing the selling price will consider all
explicit and implicit costs.
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2. Overtrading: Trade credit facility may induce the buyer to buy a large
quantity as a result it may occur in over trade.
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B. Accrued expenses:Another spontaneous source of short-term financing is the accrued expenses as
the outstanding expense liabilities. Accrued expenses refer to services received
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by the firm but the payment for which has not been made. The accrued expenses
represent an interest free source of finance. There is no explicit and implicit cost
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included in the accrued expenses. The most common accrued expenses aresalary, wages and taxes. In these cases the amount may be due but the payments
are not paid immediately. For example, a firm having a policy of paying salary
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and wages on a monthly basis. Similarly, the sales commission or target
incentives, sales tax etc. are always payable with a time lag. The interest on
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debentures and borrowings is also payable periodically and thereby providefunds to the firms for the intervening period between two interest rates.
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278Merits:
Interest free cost: The accrued expenses are interest free sources of financing.
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It is consistent with the general philosophy of paying the creditors as late aspossible as long as the firm does not damage its credit rating.
Demerits:
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Postponement of salary and wages beyond normal level will affect the morale of
the employees, resulting in reduced efficiency and higher labour turnover.
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II. Bank Loans:The bank loans, in general, are a short-term financing say for a year or so. This
short-term financing to business firm is regarded as self-liquidating. It means,
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banks routinely provide finance to meet the seasonal demand e.g., to cover the
seasonal increase in inventories or receivables. Sometimes, the banks may
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approve separate limits for peak season and non-peak season. The main sourcesof short-term funds are cash credit, overdraft and bill discounting.
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Bank Loans
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Cash CreditOverdraft
Bills purchasing and bills
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discounting
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Types of Bank Loans:In India banks provide financial assistance for working capital in different
shapes and forms. The usual form of bank loans are as follows:
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279
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a. Cash credit: Cash credit arrangements are usually made against the securityof commodities hypothecated with the bank. It is an arrangement by which a
banker allows his customer to borrow money upto a certain limit. The interest is
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charged at the specified rate on the amount withdrawn and for the relevant
period.
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b. Overdraft: A firm, already having a current account with a banker is allowedto withdraw above the balance in the current account. The amount so overdrawn
may be repaid by depositing back in the current account as and when the firm
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wants. The firm need not get permission from the banker every time it is
overdrawing but one time approval is necessary. However a bank can review
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and modify the overdraft limit at any time. A cash credit differs from anoverdraft in the sense that the former is used for long-term by commercial and
industrial concerns during regular business while the latter is supposed to be a
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form of bank credit to be used occasionally and for shorter durations.
c. Bills discount and bills purchased: The banks also give short-term advances
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to their customers by discounting the bills of exchange. The discount dependsupon the amount of the bill, the maturity period and the prime-lending rate
prevailing at that time. The bills may be payable on demand or on maturity.
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Whenever bills payable on demand is discounted, it is called bills purchased,
and when the bills payable at maturity is discounted by bank, it is called bills
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discounting.Merits:
1. Low cost: Bank loans provided by the commercial banks are generally
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cheaper as compared to any other source of short-term finance.
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2802. Flexibility: Since the banks are providing loans by deferred schemes of
finance, considerable flexibility can be maintained.
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III. Other sources:
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Other sources
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Factoring
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Commercial papersIntercorporate deposits
a. Factoring:
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In case of credit sales, it attracts more customers, resulting in increased sales and
higher profit, but it has a cost also. This cost may be of two types, namely
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investment cost and administrative cost. Moreover, the sellers have to raisefunds from various sources in order to finance the receivables. While
maintaining receivables, a firm may have to face two types of problems. First,
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the problem of raising funds to finance the receivables, and second the problem
relating to collection, delay and defaults of the receivables. If the firm
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concentrates on managing funds and receivables, it cannot concentrate on otherfunctions like finance, production, marketing, personal etc. Under this situation
a firm can avail the services of a specialist organization engaged in receivables
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management. These specialist firms are known as factoring firms.
Definition:
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Factoring is a service that covers the financing and collection of account
receivables in domestic and international trade.
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Factoring may be defined as the relationship between the seller of thegoods and a financial firm, called the factor, whereby the latter purchases the
receivables from the former and also administers the receivables of the former.
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281
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Factoring is an ongoing arrangement between client and factor, whereinvoices raised on open account sales of goods and services are regularly
assigned to `the Factor' for financing, collection and sales ledger administration.
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Factoring is a financing technique in which a business sells invoiced
receivables at a discount to a bank or a financing house or to an internal finance
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company. The factor may or may not accept the incumbent credit risk. This is aservice offered by a factoring company that enables companies to sell their
outstanding book debts for cash.
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Companies benefiting from factoring:
Companies that typically benefit from factoring include those that rapidly grow,
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seasonal, in start up mode, under capitalized, those that have a lengthy
manufacturing cycle, those strained by slow turnovers of receivables, hurt by
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high bad debt losses and those saddled with a large customer concentration.How it works:
The factor fully manages your sales ledger and provides you with credit control
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and collection services of all your outstanding debts. The invoices you issue
upon a sale are sent to the factor that typically advances upto 80% to 90% of
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the invoice amount to you. The balance, less charge, is paid when the customermakes payment directly to the factor. These services are disclosed to your
customer who typically receives a letter from the factor, or attached note to your
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invoice, containing payment instructions to the factor. Funds are typically
released to you with in 24 hours of issuing the invoices.
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282
Cost involvement in factoring:
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a. Monetary Costs:The factors are providing advances to their client upto 80% to 90% of the
invoice amount within 24 hours of issuing invoices. For this cash advance they
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are charging interest. The interest charges calculated on the daily usage of funds
are typically comparable to normal secured bank overdraft rates.
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b. Service Charges:The charge, which is known as service charge, is expressed as a percentage of
sales factored. The service charge, covering sale ledger management, collection
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services, and bad debts protection can range between 0.60% and 3.0% of
turnover.
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Types of Factoring:Factoring is a financial service provided by a factor firm to the client seller. The
type of factoring depends upon the terms and conditions on which the services
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are provided, it is classified as follows:
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Factoring
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Recourse factoring
Non-recourse factoring /
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Others
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No risk
Advanced
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Maturity factoring
Involves risk
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factoring
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Types of fact oring1. Recourse factoring: This refers to those situations where factor firms assume
only the work of collection of the receivables. They do not take any
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responsibility of bad debts i.e. any loss due to delay or default by the
receivables is borne by the selling firms. In case the factor firm has already
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283
given advance to the selling firm against the receivable, then the seller firm
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should reduce the advance to the factor firm in case of default by the customer.
2. Non-recourse factoring: It is also known as full factoring. Non-recourse
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factoring protects against customers who fail to pay. The basic feature of non-recourse factoring is that the risk of default is born by the factor firm and the
selling firms in any case receives the sales amount. Thus the factor typically
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covers this risk by taking out credit insurance. The cost of the credit insurance
is passed on to the selling firm and depends on the risk profile of your customer
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and the amount of your factor is typically between 0.3% and 0.7% of turnover.The coverage limit with the factor is normally 80% - 95% of the factored
amount.
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3. Other types of factoring: Factoring may be advanced factoring or maturity
factoring. In the case of advance factoring 80 ? 90% of the receivable is paid by
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the factor to the seller within 24 hours of issue of invoice and the balance lesscharges payable at the time of collection of receivables. In the case of maturity
factoring no advance is payable to the seller, rather the payment is made only
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after collection from the customers.
Factoring vs. invoice discounting: If the business is already large enough to
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afford the staff and information system to efficiently manage the outstandinginvoices, then the firm may want to consider an invoice discounting rather than
factoring. It is identical to factoring except that in the sales ledger management
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the collection responsibility remains with the firm and the service is undisclosed
to the customer.
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284
Factoring and internet:
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Many factoring companies provide Internet access to the seller, allowing you to
constantly monitor your sales ledger, balances, and individual customer details.
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Paperwork can be eliminated by electronic transfer of your invoices.Benefits of factoring:
1. Better working capital management: Since there is instant cash and
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80-90% of issued invoices are prepaid within 24 hours the problem of additional
working capital required to match sales growth does not arise at all.
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2. Management of receivables: Sales ledger management and debtcollection is done by the factoring company.
3. Improved growth: Firm borrows based on sales activity so firm can
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automatically set up to finance the growth of the company.
4. Flexibility with financing: Factoring reveals and often replaces the
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traditional bank overdraft. In addition to all the credit management services, afactoring facility grows with the business and does not need renegotiating every
time an increase is required.
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5. Better risk management: In case of non - recourse factoring, the risk of
default is born by the factor firm and the selling firm does not assume any risk in
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connection with collection of money from the customers.Factoring in India:
Factoring in India is of recent origin. In order to study the feasibility of factoring
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services in India the RBI constituted a committee in January 1988. The
committee submitted its response in January 1989 and RBI accepted its
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recommendation with specific guidelines permitting banks to start factoring inIndia through their subsidiaries.
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In India, factoring is still not very common and only a few commercial
banks have established factoring agencies. The first factoring i.e. the SBI
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285
commercial and factoring services Ltd started working in April 1991. This
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company looks after the business of Western India. The business of Northern
India, Southern India and Eastern India are being looked after by Punjab
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national bank, Canara bank and Allahabad bank respectively. Honkong andShangai Banking Corporation (HSBC) currently offers both domestic and
international factoring. When such banks are fully in operation, it will be a boon
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to specially small and medium sections.
Forfaiting:
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In February 1992, the RBI issued guidelines for the introduction of forfaiting,which refers to factoring of export receivables. It refers to discounting of future
trade related receivables under credit, made available by exporters to the
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customers.
b. Commercial Papers (CPs).
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Commercial Papers are debt instruments issued by corporates for raising short-term resources from the money market. These are unsecured debts of corporates.
They are issued in the form of promissory notes, redeemable at par to the holder
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at maturity. Only corporates who get an investment grade rating can issue CPs
as per RBI rules. Though CPs are issued by corporates, they could be good
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investments if proper caution is exercised.c. Inter Corporate Deposits (ICD)
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Sometimes, the companies borrow funds for a short-term period; say up to sixmonths, from other companies, which have surplus liquidity for the time being.
The ICD are generally unsecured and are arranged by a financier. The ICD are
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very common and popular in practice, as these are not influenced by the legal
hassles. The convenience is the basic virtue of this method of financing. There is
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no regulation at present in India to regulate these ICD. Moreover, these are not286
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covered by the section 58A of the companies Act, 1956, as the ICD are not forlong term.
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Key words:
Trade creditor is a source of funds available from the supplies, supplying the
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goods on credit.Open account, which refers to supply of goods on credit. But the buyer does not
sign any formal debt instrument evidencing the amount due.
Accrued expenses is a spontaneous source of short-term financing referred to
the services availed by the firm, but the payment for which has not yet been
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made.Spontaneous sources of funds are those, which occur and result from the course
of normal business activity. The cost of these funds is almost nil.
Permanent sources of funds which are available to the company until the
company is alive.
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Short-term sources of funds, which are available to the company for less than12 months.
Bank overdraft is a short-term source available to the customer. A customer
can withdraw over and above the balance in the current account
Credit insurance - Insurance in case the customer fails to pay the invoice. In
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these situations payment for bad debts are received upto pre determined limits.Factoring - Instant cash upon issuing invoices on sales ledger.
Non-recourse Factoring - If the customers fail to pay the invoices, the factors
will pay. Hence we pay an additional charge to cover the credit insurance costs.
Recourse Factoring - If the customers fail to pay their invoices, the factors will
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look for reimbursement of any amounts advanced against the invoice. Theservice excludes bad debts protection.
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287
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288
Self-assessment Questions/Exercises
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1. What is factoring and explain the benefits of factoring?2. What are the sources of short-term working capital?
3. What is the difference between factoring and invoice discounting?
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4. What is the difference between recourse and non-recourse factoring?
5. How much of the invoice amount is advanced in factoring?
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6. Discuss the various sources of working capital funds.7. Whether working capital should be met from short-term or long-term
capital.
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8. If a firm has a constant requirement of working capital throughout the
year, which of the three financing plan is preferable? Why?
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9. Discuss the new trends in financing of working capital by banks10. Examine the role of bank credit in financing of working capital. What
are the types of bank credit?
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11. What is a medium term loan? Name some of them.
12. Write notes on: a) Public fixed deposit, b) Working capital term loans
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13. Write notes on: a) Bank loan, b) Trade credit, c) Cash credit andoverdraft, d) Bill discounting, e) Commercial paper.
14. Explain the concept of factoring. What are its different types?
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289
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LESSON 4Working Capital and Banking Policy
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LESSON OUTLINE
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1. Dehejia committee 1969
2. Tandon committee reports
1974
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Lending practicesLEARNING OBJECTIVES
a) Inventory and receivable
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norms
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After reading this lesson you should beb) Maximum permissible
bank finance
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able to
i. First method of
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lendingii. Second method of
Understand
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why
banks
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arelending
charging different interest rates for
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iii. Third method of
long-term and short-term loans.
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lendingUnderstand the recommendations
c) Style of credit
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of different committees for working
d) Information and
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capital.reporting system
Identify
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the
Maximum
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3. Chore committee reportsPermissible Bank Finance (MPBF)
1980
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for working capital requirements.
4. Marathe committee reports
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Estimate maximum permissible1982
bank finance available under different
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5. Chakravarthy committee
methods of lending.
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reports 1985Know recent trends adopted by
6. Kannan committee reports
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RBI with regards to working capital.
1997
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How to regulate working capital7. Recent RBI guidelines
finance under the FAST TRACK
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SYSTEM?What is the working capital
policy in liberalized scenario?
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290
Need for working capital banking policy?
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Banks provide finance to industrial entrepreneurs in India, in addition to
financial institutions. They provide finance in two ways ? long-term loans to
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invest in the permanent assets and short-term loans for working capital finance.However the interest rates are different for the two different loans ? a higher
interest rate for long-term loans and a lower interest rate for working capital
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loans. This is because of two reasons. One, the long-term loans carry high risk
and more administrative cost; second, when banks accept deposits from the
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public they pay higher interest for long-term deposits than for short-termComment [m1]: Fixed?
deposits. By taking the advantage of the low interest rates for working capital
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loans, invariably most of the industrial entrepreneurs entered different banks for
the same purpose and borrow funds from these banks. After using the short-
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Comment [m2]:term loans for working capital, they diverted to fixed assets also since it carries
low interest rate than long-term loans. This results in low economic growth,
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Comment [m3]:
loss for the banks and also failure of the individual entrepreneurs to grow. Hence
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the bank credit working capital has been subjected to various rules, regulationsand controls. The RBI has appointed different study groups from time to time to
suggest ways and means of making the bank credit an effective instrument for
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economic growth, industrialization as well as to improve the profit of the
banking sectors. The current chapter discusses the various committees
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constituted by the RBI for the purpose of providing working capital finance.Reports submitted by the following committees are significant in this respect:
1. Dehejia Committee Report 1969.
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2. Tandon Committee Report 1974.3. Chore Committee Report 1980.
4. Marathe Committee Report 1982.
5. Chakravarthy Committee Report 1985.
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291
6. Kannan Committee Report 1997.
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1. Dehejia Committee:
A study group under the chairmanship of V.T. Dehejia was constituted in 1968
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in order to determine " the extent to which credit needs of industry and tradewere inflated and to suggest ways and means of curbing this phenomenon". The
committee submitted its reports in September 1969.
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Findings: The important findings of the committee are given below.
1. Higher growth rate of bank credit to industry than the rise in industrial
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output.2. Banks in general sanctioned working capital loans to the industry
without properly assessing their needs based on projected financial
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statements.3. There was also a tendency on the part of industry to divert short-term
bank credit to some extent for acquiring fixed assets and for other
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purposes.4. The present lending system facilitated industrial units to rely on short-
term bank credit to finance for fixed assets.
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Recommendations: On the basis of the above findings the following
recommendations were made by Dehejia Committee to bring about
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improvements in the lending system:1. Credit application should be appraised by the bankers with reference to
present and projected total financial position as shown by cash flow analysis and
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forecast submitted by borrowers.2. The total cash credit requirement is divided into two parts namely (i)
Hard core components representing the minimum level of raw materials,
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finished goods and stores which the industry requires for maintaining a givenlevel of production and which is made on a formal term loan basis. (ii) Short-
term components representing the fluctuating part of current assets.
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292
3. In order to avoid the possibility of multiple financing, a customer should
deal with only one bank. However if the credit requirement is more the
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committee recommended the adoption of "Consortium arrangement".The recommendations given by Dehejia Committee could not be
implemented, further in view of unprecedented inflation during 1974 the
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demand for bank credit rose sharply. Most of the banks had to freeze the credit
limit and therefore a need was felt to have a close look at the entire bank credit
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system. A Committee was, therefore appointed by RBI in July 1974, under thechairmanship of Shri P.L.Tandon.
2. Tandon Committee:
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A study group under the chairmanship of Shri P.L. Tandon was constituted in
1974 by the RBI in order to frame guidelines for bank credit. The terms of
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reference of the committee were as follows.Terms of reference:
1. To suggest guidelines for commercial banks to follow up and supervise
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credit from the point of view of ensuring proper end-use of funds and keeping a
watch on the safety of advances.
2. To make recommendations for obtaining periodical information that may
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be obtained by banks from the borrower.
3. To make suggestions for prescribing inventory norms for different
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industries.4. To suggest criteria regarding satisfactory capital structure and sound
financial basis in relation to borrowings.
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5. To suggest whether the existing patterns of financing working capital
requirements by cash credit / overdraft system, etc. are required to be modified,
if so, to suggest modifications.
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293Findings: On the basis of the reference given above, the committee studied the
existing system of working capital finance provided to industry and identified
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the following as its major weaknesses.
1. The banks do not have any credit appraisal or planning. It is the
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borrower who decides how much he would borrow.2. The security-based approach to lending has led to division of funds to
purchase of fixed assets.
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3. Bank credit is treated as the first source of finance rather than being
taken as a supplementary to other sources of finance.
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4. The working capital finance should be made available only for a shortperiod, as it has otherwise, led to accumulation of inventories with the industry.
Recommendations: The report was submitted on 9th August 1975 and it is a
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landmark in the history of financing working capital by commercial banks in
India. The Tandon Committee made comprehensive recommendation regarding
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the bank lending practices, which can be broadly classified into four groups'.Important features of the Tandon Committee recommendations based on the
fixation of norms for bank lending to industry are as follows.
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Norms for Bank Lending:
1. Inventory and receivable norms
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The borrowers are allowed to keep reasonable current assets particularlyinventory and debtors. The normal current assets based on economic ordering
levels and certain level of safety, should be financed by banker. Finance to
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borrower in the form of working capital should not be made available for profit
making or to keep excess inventory. Similarly the bank should finance the bills
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receivable, which are in line with the practices of the borrower's industry. Thenorms have been worked out according to the time element. The limit of the
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294
raw materials is expressed as so many months of total consumption in the year.
The work-in-progress limit determined as so many months of cost of production,
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the finished goods and bills receivable limits are determined by cost of sales and
credit sales respectively. The Tandon Committee has suggested norms for
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fifteen industries.2. Lending norms or Maximum Permissible Bank Finance (MPBF)
Tandon Committee introduced the concept of MPBF in the working capital
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finance by banker. The Committee suggested that bank should attempt to
supplement the borrowers' resources in financing the current assets. It has
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recommended that the current assets first should be financed by trade creditorsand other current liabilities. The remaining current assets, which is called
working capital gap, should be financed particularly by bankers in the form of
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bank credit and through long-term borrowings or owner's funds. In the context
of this approach, the committee has suggested three alternative methods for
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working out the MPBF. Each successive method reduces the involvement ofshort-term bank credit to finance the current assets.
First method:
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In the first method, 25% of the Working Capital Gap (CA- (CL excluding bank
borrowing)) should be contributed by borrower through long-term funds and
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remaining 75% can be financed from bank borrowings. This method will give aminimum current ratio of 1.17:1. The term working capital gap refers to the
total of CA less CL other than bank borrowings. This can be understood with
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the help of the following examples.
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295Example 1: Amount of maximum permissible bank borrowings as per the first
method can be ascertained as follows:
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Amount(Rs.)
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Total CA required by the borrower
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50,000Current liabilities (excluding bank borrowing)
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10,000
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Working Capital Gap
40,000
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-------
Maximum Permissible bank borrowing
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30,000
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-------
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Second method:Under this method the borrower should provide 25% of the total current assets
through long-term funds and this will give a current ratio of 1.33:1
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Example 2:The maximum permissible bank borrowings as per second method can be
ascertained as follows: Amount(Rs.)
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Total CA required by the borrower 50,000Less: 25% to be provided by borrower through long-term funds 12,500
Less: Current liabilities (excluding bank borrowing) 10,000
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----------
Maximum Permissible bank borrowing
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27,500
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----------Third method:
In this method the borrower should contribute from long-term sources to the
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extent of core current assets (Fixed Current assets) and 25% of the balance ofthe current assets. The remaining of the working capital gap can be met from
bank borrowings. This method will further strengthen the current ratio.
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296
Example 3:
The maximum permissible bank borrowings as per the third method can be
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ascertained as follows:--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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Amount(Rs.)Total CA required by the borrower 50,000
Less: Core current assets (assumed)
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4,000
Balance
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46,000
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25% to be provided by borrower through long-term funds
11,500
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Balance--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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34,500
Less: Current liabilities (excluding bank borrowing) 10,000
----------
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Maximum permissible bank borrowing--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
24,500
----------
The committee recommended the first method mainly as a stop-gap method till
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borrowers get used to the new approach of lending. The borrowers who are
already in the second method would not be allowed to revert to the first stage.
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Hard Core Working Capital:It also known as Core current assets or fixed current assets. Any organization
has to maintain minimum level of current assets throughout its existence as long
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as production cycle continues. They are permanent in nature. Thus a minimum
amount of raw material, WIP, finished goods etc, that are required to be kept for
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running a company are called hard core working capital. The hard core workingcapital are like fixed assets such as machinery and building are for long-terms,
but the difference between them is that the same machinery and building
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continues to exist but in case of elements of hard core working capital the level
of working capital remains same but not the exact raw material, WIP on finished
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goods. These are replaced continuously by other items consisting of utmostsame value.
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297
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Reserve Bank's direction:The RBI accepted the recommendations of the committee as a whole. It
instructed the commercial banks in 1976 to put all the borrowers having
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aggregate credit limits from banking system in excess of Rs.10 lakhs, under the
first method lending.
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Example 4:Amount(Rs.) Amount(Rs.)
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Current Liabilities
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Current Assets
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Sundry creditor
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400
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Raw Materials
400
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Other sundry liabilities
100
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Working Progress
250
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Bank borrowing
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500
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Finished Goods
180
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Sundry debtors
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250
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--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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other current, asset
50
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1000
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1130
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Thus current asset = Rs.1130, current liabilities(other than bank
borrowing) = Rs.500
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Find out MPBF and excess borrowings by the firm under the three methods oflending.
Method 1
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(a) Total current assets--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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1130(b) Less: other current liabilities
(Excluding bank borrowings)
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500(c) Working capital gap
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630
(d) Less: 25% margin on working capital gap
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157
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(To be funded from long-term sources)(e) Maximum permissible bank finance (c-d)
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473
(f) Excess Borrowing
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27
(Bank Borrowing ?e = 500-473)
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298
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Method 2(a) Total current assets
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1130
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(b) Less: 25% margin on Total current assets 283
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(To be funded from long-term sources)(c) Less other current liabilities
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(Excluding bank borrowings)
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500
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(d) Maximum permissible bank Finance
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347
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(e) Excess Borrowings
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153
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(Bank Borrowing ? d = 500-347)
Method 3
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(a) Total current assets
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1130
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(b) Less: permanent current assets or core current assets 250
(To be funded from long-term sources)
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(c) Effective current asset for this purpose
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880
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(d) Less: 25% of (c)(To be funded from long-term sources) 220
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--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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660
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(e) Less: other current liabilities
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(Excluding bank borrowings)
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500
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(f) Maximum permissible bank Finance
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160
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(g) Excess Borrowing (Bank Borrowing ? f = 500-160)
340
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It may be noted that demand from borrower for long-term fund is
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increasing as we go from Method 1 to Method 2 and to Method 3. It is Rs.157,Rs.283 and Rs.470 ( 250+220 ) respectively in Method 1, Method 2 and
Method 3.
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Suitability of lending method to bankers:
At present all sanctions of working capital by banks are based on Method 2.
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Because the second method of lending is more acceptable to bankers since, itprovides more cushion to them as far as quantum of margin is concerned,
compared to first method of lending. Obviously the amount of maximum
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permissible bank finance under the second method is lesser when compared to
the first method.
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299
3. Style of credit:
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The Tandon committee also suggested that total MPBF should be bifurcated into
two components 1. Loan component, which represents the minimum level of
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borrowing throughout the year and 2. Demand cash credit component, whichwould take care of the fluctuating needs and is required to be reviewed
periodically. The demand cash credit component should be charged slightly
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higher interest rate than the loan components. This would provide the borrower
an incentive for better planning. Apart from the loan component and cash credit
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component, a part of the total financing requirements should also be provided byway of bills limit to finance the seller's receivables. The proposed system of
lending and the style of credit might be extended to all borrowers having credit
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limits in excess of Rs. 10 lakhs from the banking system.
4. Information and reporting system:
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In order to ensure that the borrowers do not use the cash credit facility in anunplanned manner and they keep only required level inventories and
receivables, the committee suggested a new information system. Under this
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system the borrowers are required to submit the following documents to the
bankers periodically.
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(i) A copy of the audited financial statements at the end of each year.(ii) A copy of a projected financial statement and funds flow statement for the
next year.
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(iii) Quarterly budgeting cum reporting statements.
(iv) Monthly stock statement.
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300
The Tandon committee further suggested that the information system
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might be introduced to start with in respect of borrowers with limit of Rs1 croreand above from the entire banking system and then extended progressively to
others.
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3. Chore committee:
Having implemented the recommendations of the Tandon committee, the RBI
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constituted another working group under the chairmanship of Shri K.B. Chore,Chief officer, Department of Banking operation and development, RBI.
Terms of reference:
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1. The committee was asked to review the cash credit system in recent
years with particular reference to the gap between sanctioned limit and the
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extent of their utilisation.2. To suggest alternative types of credit facilities, which should ensure
greater credit discipline and enable the banks to relate credit limits to increase in
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output or other production activities.
Recommendations:
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1. Continuation of existing credit:The existing system of three types of lending namely, cash credits, loans and
bills should be retained.
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2. No bifurcation of credit limit:
Bifurcation of cash credit limit into a loan component and a fluctuating cash
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credit component has not found acceptance either on the part of the banks or the301
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borrowers. Therefore the committee recommends withdrawing bifurcation of
accounts.
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3. Separate limit for peak and non-peak level requirements:The banks have been asked to fix separate credit limits wherever feasible for the
normal non-peak level and peak level credit requirements and indicate the
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periods during which the separate limits would be utilised by the borrowers. If,
however, there is no pronounced seasonal trend, peak-level and normal
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requirements should be treated as identical and limits should be fixed on thatbasis. It should be noted that peak-level and non-peak level concepts apply not
only to agriculture-based industry but also to certain other consumer industries
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where the demand may have pronounced seasonal tendencies. Within the limits
sanctioned for the peak-level and non-peak level periods the borrowers should
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indicate before the commencement of each quarter the requirements of fundsduring that quarters. The statement so submitted by the borrowers should form
the basis for quarterly review of the accounts.
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4. Submission of Quarterly Statements:
The quarterly statements should be submitted by all the borrowers enjoying
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working capital limit of Rs.50 lakhs and above and they will have to bringgradual additional contribution based on second method of lending as prescribed
by the Tandon Committee.
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4. Marathe committee:
The RBI, in 1982, appointed a committee under the chairmanship of Marathe to
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review the working of credit authorization scheme (CAS) and suggestmeasure for giving meaningful direction to the credit management function of
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302
the RBI. The RBI with some modifications has accepted the recommendations
of the committee.
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Recommendations:
The principal recommendations of the Marathe committee include:
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(1) The committee has declared the third method of lending as suggested bythe Tandon committee to be dropped, hence, in future, the banks would provide
credit for working capital according to the second method of lending.
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(2) The committee has suggested the introduction of the `Fast-Track
Scheme' to improve the quality of credit appraisal in banks. It recommended
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that commercial banks can release without prior approval of the reserve bank50% of the additional credit required by the borrowers (75% in case of export
oriented manufacturing units) where the following requirements are fulfilled:
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(a) The estimate/projections in regard to production, sales, chargeable
current asset, current liabilities other than bank borrowings, and net working
capital are reasonable in terms of the past trends and assumptions regarding
most likely trends during the future projected period.
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(b) The classification of assets and liabilities as `current' and `non-current'
is in conformity with the guidelines issued by the Reserve Bank of India.
(c) The projected current ratio is not below 1.33:1.
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(d) The borrower has been submitting quarterly information and operating
statement (form 1, form 2, and 3) for the past six months within the
prescribed time and undertakes to do the same in future also.
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(e) The borrower undertakes to submit to the banks his annual accountregularly and promptly. Further, the bank is required to review the
borrower's facilities at least once in a year even if the borrower does not
need enhancement in credit facilities.
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303
5. Chakravarthy committee:
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The Reserve Bank of India appointed another committee under the chairmanshipof Mr. Chakravarthy to review the working capital of the monetary system of
India. The committee submitted its report in April 1985. The committee made
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two major recommendations in regard to the working capital finance
1. Penal Interest for Delayed Payment
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The committee has suggested that the government must insist all public sectorsunits, large private sector units and government departments must include penal
interest payment clause in their contracts for payment delayed beyond a
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specified period. The penal interest may be fixed at 2 percent higher than the
minimum lending rate of the supplier's bank.
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2.Classification of credit limit under three different headsThe committee further suggested that the total credit limit to be sanctioned to a
borrower should be considered under the three different heads: (1) Cash credit I
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to include supplies to government, (2) Cash credit II to cover special
circumstances and (3) Normal working capital limit to cover the balance credit
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facilities. The interest rates proposed for the three heads are also different. Basiclending rate of the bank should be charged to cash credit II, and the normal
working capital limit be charged as below:
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(a) For cash credit portion:
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Maximum prevailing lending rate of thebank.
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(b) For bill finance portion:2% below the basic lending rate of the
bank.
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(c) For loan portion:
The rate may vary between the minimum
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and maximum lending rate of the bank.304
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6. Kannan committee:In view of the ongoing liberalisation in the financial sector, the Indian Banks
Association (IBA) constituted a committee headed by shri. K.Kannan,
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chairmanship and managing director of bank of Baroda to examine all the
aspects of working capital finance including assessment of maximum
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permissible bank finance (MPBF). The committee submitted its report on 25thFebruary 1997. It recommended that the arithmetical rigidities imposed by
Tandon committee (and reinforced by chore committee) in the form of MPBF
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computation so far in practice, should be scrapped. The committee further
recommended that freedom to each bank should be given in regard to evolving
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its own system of working capital finance for a faster credit delivery so as toserve various borrowers more effectively. It also suggested that line of credit
system (LCS), as prevalent in many advanced countries, should replace the
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existing system of assessment/fixation of sub-limits within total working capital
requirements. The committee proposed to shift emphasis from the liquidity level
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lending (security based lending) to the cash deficit lending called desirablebank finance (DBF). Some of the recommendations of the committee have
been already been accepted by the Reserve Bank of India with suitable
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modifications.
Recommendations:
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The important measures adopted by RBI in this respect are given below:(1) Assessment of working capital finance based on the concept of MPBF, as
recommended by Tandon committee, has been withdrawn. The bank have been
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given full freedom to evolve an appropriate system for assessing working
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305capital needs of the borrowers within the guidelines and norms already
prescribed by reserve bank of India.
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(2) The turnover method may continue to be used as a tool to assess the
requirement of small borrowers. For small scale and tiny industries, this method
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of assessment has been extended upto total credit limits of Rs 2 crore as againstexisting limit of 1 crore.
(3) Banks may now adopt cash budgeting system for assessing the working
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capital finance in respect of large borrowers.
(4) The banks have also been allowed to retain the present method of MPBF
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with necessary modification or any other system as they deem fit.(5) Banks should lay down transparent policy and guidelines for credit
dispensation in respect of each broad category of economic activity.
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(6) The RBI's instrument relating to directed credit, quantitative limits on
lending and prohibitions of credit shall continue to be in force. The present
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reporting system to RBI under the Credit Monitoring Arrangement (CMA) shallalso continue in force.
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Working Capital Assessment:After dissolution of Tandon Committee guidelines (Known as Maximum
Permissible Bank finance ? MPBF), except state bank of India (SBI) which is
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the largest commercial bank in the country, no other bank has come out with any
guidelines for assessing the working capital. Most of the banks are virtually
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following same MPBF with or without slight modification. Other banks arevery closely watching the SBI guidelines for slowly adopting the SBI guidelines
in one form or the other. The methods, which are being followed by the SBI, are
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as follows.
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306(A) Projected Balance Sheet method: It is the statement, which provide
details regarding anticipated sales revenues, expense, assets and liabilities on a
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future date. Out of this information a firm can easily project requirements of theworking capital.
(B) Cash budget method: It is primarily concerned with anticipated sources
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and application of cash for future period. This is very useful to the management
to plan for raising adequate cash and appropriates investment of surplus cash. In
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general the cash budgets are prepared on a monthly basis.(C) Turnover method: This is a simple method of estimating working
capital requirements. According to this method, on the basis of past experience
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between sales and working capital requirements, a ratio can be determined for
estimating the working capital requirements in future. For example, if the past
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experience shows that working capital has been 25% of sales and it is estimatedthat the sales for the next year would amount to Rs.1 lakh, the amount of
working capital requirement can be assessed as Rs. 25,000.
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RBI guidelines regarding working capital finance:
The concept of maximum permissible bank finance (MPBF) was introduced in
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November 1975 as part of implementation of the recommendation of the Tandon
working group. Over the years, with the guidelines of Chore Committee,
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Marathee Committee and Kannan Committee various improvements had beenbrought about in the loan delivery system. Consistent with the policy of
liberalisation made during 1990s, greater operational freedom has been provided
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to banks to evolve their own methods of assessing the working capital
requirements of the borrowers within the prudential guidelines for financing
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working capital needs. Accordingly the RBI has withdrawn (w e f. 15th April1997) the prescription in regard to assessment of working capital needs based on
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307
the concept of MPBF enunciated by Tandon Working group. So, Working
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Capital finance henceforth will be determined only by the banks according totheir perception of the borrower and the credit needs.
Keywords:
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Working capital gap refers to current assets minus current liabilities excluding
bank borrowing.
Maximum permissible bank finance indicates working capital from the bank
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under short-term interest rate finance available to company.Hard core working capital is a fixed current asset maintained by organization
throughout its existence as long as production cycle continues. They are
permanent in nature.
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Self-assessment Questions/Exercises
1.Expalin the background and recommendation of tandon committee.
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2.What requirements are to be complied with by a borrower before he could beplaced on the fast track?
3. Outline the recommendations of the Marathe committee.
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4. What is meant by working capital term loan? (WCTL)5. What are the three alternative methods of working capital out of the
maximum permissible level of bank borrowings recommended by the tandon
committee? 6. Enumerate any five of the main recommendation of "chore
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committee" as accepted by reserve bank of India.7. Write short note on hard-core working capital.
8. How would you assess the working capital requirement of your company?
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9. What are the main recommendations of Tandon Committee?
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30810.What is maximum permissible finance? How is it calculated?
11. Why second method of financing of Tandon Committee has become more
acceptable to bankers than other methods?
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12. After withdrawal of MPBF what methods are being followed by banks for
assessment of working capital of customer?
13. What is meant by working capital gap? How can it be arrived under the three
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methods of lending?14. From the following data, calculate the maximum permissible bank finance
under the three methods suggested by the Tandon Committee:
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Current LiabilitiesRs in lacs
Current Asset
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Rs in lacs
Creditors
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100 Raw Material160
Other current liabilities
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20 Work-in-progress
60
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Bank borrowing180 Finished goods
120
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Other current assets
20
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Total300 Total
360
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The total Core Current Assets (CCA) is Rs.180 lacs.
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Answer:Method I
- Rs 180 lacs
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Method II
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- Rs 150 lacsMethod III
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- Rs 15 lacs
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309LESSON 5
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Working Capital Management
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Dimension of Working Capital ManagementLESSON OUTLINE
1. Liquidity Vs profitability -
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Return-risk trade off2. Current assets to Sales level
3. Financing mix in current
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LEARNING OBJECTIVESassets
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4. A good working capital
After reading this lesson you should be
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management policy5. Overtrading and under
able to
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trading
6. Working capital leverage
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Understand return-risk trade offand know the different level of
current asset for different sales
level forecast, identify the
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financing mix in order to invest inworking capital.
What are the important factors to
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consider for good working capitalmanagement policy?
Understand, how to increase
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Return on Investment (ROI) withworking capital management.
Differentiating over trading and
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under trading.--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
310
Background:
Working capital in general practice refers to the excess of current assets over
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current liabilities. Management of working capital therefore, is concerned with
the problems that arise in attempting to manage current assets, current liabilities
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and the inter-relationship that exists between them. In other words it refers to allthe aspects of administration of both current assets and current liabilities.
What is working capital management?
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The basic goal of working capital management is to manage the current assets
and current liabilities of a firm in such a way that a satisfactory level of working
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capital is maintained i.e., it is neither inadequate nor excessive. Companies facemany problems involving investment in current assets and current liabilities like:
What should be the level of investment in inventories and bills receivables?
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How much cash on marketable securities should be held? What should be the
level of credit purchase and outstanding expenses? To what extent should the
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current assets be financed through long-term funds? What is sound workingcapital management policy? How to increase Return On Investment (ROI) with
working capital management? These questions relate to the current assets and
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current liabilities of the firm, and belong to the field of working capital
management. Working capital management is thus concerned with the
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profitability, liquidity and structured health of the organization. In this context,working capital management has five dimensions:
1. Dimension 1 is concerned with the formulation of policies with regard to
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profitability vs liquidity - Return and risk trade off
2. Dimension 2 is concerned with the decision about the determination of
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current assets to sales level3. Dimension 3 is concerned with the decision about the financing of current
assets
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4. Dimension 4 is concerned with sound working capital management policy
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3115. Dimension 5 is concerned with other techniques used for working capital
management such as
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a) Ratio analysis
b) Over trading and under trading
c) Working capital leverage
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Dimension 1: Liquidity vs Profitability:An important aspect of a working capital policy is to maintain and provide
sufficient liquidity to the firm. Like most corporate financing decisions, the
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decision on how much working capital should be maintained involves a trade-
off. Having a large net working capital may reduce the liquidity-risk faced by
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the firm, but it can have a negative effect on the cash flows. Therefore, the neteffect on the value of the firm should be used to determine the optimal amount
of working capital. A firm must maintain enough cash balance or other liquid
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assets so that it never faces problems of payment to liabilities. Does it mean that
a firm should maintain unnecessarily large liquidity to pay the creditors? Can a
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firm adopt such a policy? Certainly not. "There is also another side for a coin".Greater liquidity makes it easy for a firm to meet its payment commitments, but
simultaneously greater liquidity involves cost also.
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The risk-return trade-off involved in managing the firm's working
capital is a trade-off between the firm's liquidity and its profitability. By
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maintaining a large investment in current assets like cash, inventory etc., thefirm reduces the chance of (1) production stoppages and the loss from sales due
to inventory shortage and (2) the inability to pay the creditors on time. However,
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as the firm increases its investment in working capital, there is not a
corresponding increase in its expected returns. As a result the firm's return on
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investment drops because the profit is unchanged while the investment incurrent assets increases.
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312
In addition to the above, the firm's use of current liability versus long-
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term debt also involves a risk-return trade-off. Other things being equal, the
greater the firm's reliance on the short-term debts or current liability in
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financing its current investment, the greater the risk of illiquidity. On the otherhand, the use of current liability can be advantageous as it is less costly and is a
flexible means of financing. A firm can reduce its risk of illiquidity through the
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use of long-term debts at the cost of reduction in its return on investment. The
risk-return trade-off thus involves an increased risk of illiquidity and
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profitability.So, there exists a trade-off between profitability and liquidity or a trade-
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off between risk (liquidity) and return (profitability) with reference to working
capital. The risk in this context is measured by the profitability that the firm will
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become technically insolvent by not paying current liability as they occur; andprofitability here means the reduction of cost of maintaining current assets. The
greater the amount of liquid assets a firm has, the less risky the firm is. In other
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words, the more liquid is the firm, the less likely it is to become insolvent.
Conversely, lower levels of liquidity are associated with increasing levels of
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risk. So, the relationship of working capital, liquidity and risk of the firm is thatthe liquidity and risk move in opposite direction. So, every firm, in order to
reduce the risk will tend to increase the liquidity. But, increased liquidity has a
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cost. If a firm wants to increase profit by reducing the cost of maintaining
liquidity, then it must also increase the risk. If it wants to decrease risk, the
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profitability is also decreased. So, a trade-off between risk and return isrequired.
From the above discussion, it is clear that, in order to increase the
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profitability, the firm reduces the current assets (and thereby increases fixed
assets). Consequently, the profitability of the firm will increase but the liquidity
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313
will be reduced. The firm is now exposed to a greater risk of insolvency. The
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risk return syndrome can be summed up as follows: when liquidity increases, the
risk of insolvency is reduced. However, when the liquidity is reduced, the
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profitability increases but the risks of insolvency also increase. So, profitabilityand risk move in the same direction. What is required on the part of the financial
manager is to maintain a balance between risk and profitability. Neither too
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much of risk nor too much of profitability is good. This can be explained by
means of the balance sheet of PQR Ltd.
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The following is the balance sheet of PQR Ltd. as on 31st Dec 2006:Liabilities
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RsAsset
Rs
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Share capital
5,00,000
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Fixed asset10,00,000
Debenture
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6,00,000
Current Asset
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2,00,000Current liabilities
1,00,000
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--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
12,00,000
12,00,000
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The firm is earning 10% return on fixed assets and 2% return on current
asset. Find out the effect on liquidity and profitability of the firm for the
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following:1. Increase in current asset by 25%.
2. Decrease in current asset by 25%
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Solution:
The present earning of the firm may be ascertained as follows:
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10% return on fixed asset (10,00,000 x 10/100)Rs 1,00,000
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2% return on current asset (2,00,000 x 2/100)
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Rs 4,000Total return
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--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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1,04,000
Total assets
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(10,00,000 + 2,00,000)--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Rs 12,00,000
Rate of return (Earning/total asset)(1,04,000/12,00,000) x 100
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8.67%Ratio of current asset to total asset (2,00,000/12,00,000) 16.7%
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314
Evaluation of Effect on Liquidity vs Profitability
The above problem shows that as the current assets are increased by 25%
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Particular
Present CA
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Increase in CADecrease in
CA
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Current asset2,00,000
2,50,000
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1,50,000
Fixed asset
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10,00,0009,50,000
10,50,000
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Return on fixed asset @
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10%
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1,00,000
95,000
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1,05,000--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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Return on current asset @4,000
5000
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3000
2%
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Total return
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1,04,000
1,00,000
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1,08,000--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
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Ratio of CA to TA16.67%
20.8%
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12.5%
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Current liabilities
1,00,000
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1,00,0001,00,000
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Ratio of CA to CL
2
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2.5
1.5
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Return as a % of TA
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8.67%8.33%
9%
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(from Rs 2,00,000 to Rs 2,50,000), the ratio of current asset to total asset alsoincrease from 16.7% to 20.8%. The ratio of current asset to current liabilities
also increases from 2 to 2.5 times indicating lesser risk of insolvency. However,
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with this increase, the overall earning of the firm has reduced from Rs 1,04,000
to Rs 1,00,000 or from 8.67% to 8.33% of the total assets. Thus, if the firm opts
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to increase the current assets in order to increase the liquidity, the profitability ofthe firm also goes down.
In case, the firm opts to reduce the level of current assets by 25% from
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Rs 2,00,000 to Rs 1,50,000, the ratio of current asset to total asset will go down
from 16.7% to 12.5% and the ratio of current asset to current liabilities will also
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315
go down from 2 to 1.5 times. However, the profitability increases from 8.67% to
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9%.
Thus the problem shows that liquidity and return are opposite forces and
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the financial manager will have to find out a level of current asset where the riskas well as the return, both optimum. The firm just cannot decrease the current
asset to increase the profitability because it will result in increase of risk also.
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The firm should maintain the current asset at such a level at which both the risk
and profitability are optimum.
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Dimension 2: Determining the ratio of current assets to sales level:
As already said, there is an inevitable relationship between the sales and
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the current assets. The actual and the forecast sales have a major impact on theamount of current assets, which the firm must maintain. So, depending upon the
sales forecast, the financial manager should also estimate the requirement of
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current assets. This uncertainty may result in spontaneous increase in current
assets in line with the increase in sales level, and may bring the firm to a face-to-
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face tight working capital position. In order to overcome this uncertainty, thefinancial manager may establish a minimum level as well as a safety component
for each of the current asset for different levels of sales. But how much should
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this safety component be? It may be noted that in fact, this safety component
determines the type of working capital policy a firm is pursuing. There are three
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types of working capital policies which a firm may adopt i.e. conservative,moderate and aggressive working capital policy. These policies describe the
relationship between sales level and the level of current asset and have been
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shown in figure
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316
Current
Assets
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Conservative
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Moderate--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Aggressive
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Sales Level
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Fig. 5.1: Different types of working capital policies
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The figure 5.1 shows that in case of moderate working capital policy, the
increase in sales level will be coupled with proportionate increase in level of
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current asset also e.g., if the sales increase or are expected to increase by 10%,
then the level of current assets will also increase by 10%. In case of conservative
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working capital policy, the firm does not like to take risk. For every increase insales, the level of current assets will be increased more than proportionately.
Such a policy tends to reduce the risks of shortage of working capital by
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increasing the safety component of current assets. The conservative working
capital policy also reduces the risk of non-payment to liabilities.
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On the other hand, a firm is said to have adopted an aggressive workingcapital policy, if the increase in sales does not result in proportionate increase in
current assets. For example, for 10% increase in sales the level of current asset is
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increased by 7% only. This type of aggressive policy has many implications.
First, the risk of insolvency of the firm increases as the firm maintains lower
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liquidity. Second, the firm is exposed to greater risk as it may not be able to faceunexpected change in market and, third, reduced investment in current assets
will result in increase in profitability of the firm.
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The effect of working capital policies on the profitability of a firm is
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illustrated below:317
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WORKING CAPITAL POLICIES AND PROFITABILITY
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Particular
Conservative policy Aggressive Policy
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Sales
20,00,000
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20,00,000Earnings (EBIT)
5,00,000
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5,00,000
Fixed Asset
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10,00,00010,00,000
Current Asset
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12,00,000
10,00,000
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Total Asset22,00,000
20,00,000
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Profitability=Return on total investment 5,00,000
5,00,000
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X 100X 100
Total Asset
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22,00,000
20,00,000
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= 22.7%
= 25%
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In the conservative policy the firm has more current assets, which results
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in high liquidity, low risk and low return (22.7%). Where as in the aggressive
policy the firm has less current assets, which result in low liquidity, high risk
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and high return (25%).Dimension 3: Financing of working capital:
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Short-term Vs long-term financing:A firm should decide whether or not it should use short-term financing. If short-
term financing has to be used, the firm must determine its portion in total
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financing. This decision of the firm will be guided by the risk-return trade-off.
Short-term financing may be preferred over long-term financing for two reasons:
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(1) the cost advantage and (2) flexibility. But short-term financing is more riskythan long-term financing.
Cost of financing:
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The cost of financing has an impact on the firm's return. As short-term financing
costs less, the return would be relatively higher. Long-term financing not only
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318
involves higher cost, but also makes the rate of return on equity lesser. Thus,
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short-term financing is desirable from the point of view of returnFlexibility:
It is relatively easy to refund short-term funds when the need for funds
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diminishes. Long-term funds such as debenture loan or preference capital cannot
be refunded before time. Thus, if a firm anticipates that its requirement for funds
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will diminish in near future, it would choose to short-term funds because of thisflexibility.
Risk of financing with short term sources:
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Although short-term financing involves less cost, but it is more risky than long-
term financing. If the firm uses short-term financing to finance its current asset,
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it runs the risk of renewing the borrowing again and again. This is particularlyso in the case of the permanent current assets. As discussed earlier, permanent
current assets refer to the minimum level of current assets, which a firm should
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always maintain. If the firm finances its permanent current assets with short-
term debt, it will have to raise new short-term funds, as the debt matures. This
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continued financing exposes the firm to certain risks. It may be difficult for thefirm to borrow during stringent credit periods. At times, the firm may be unable
to raise any funds and consequently, its operating activities may be disrupted. In
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order to avoid failure, the firm may have to borrow at most inconvenient terms.
These problems do not arise when the firm finances with long-term funds. There
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is less risk of failure when the long-term financing is used.Thus, there is a conflict between long-term and short-term financing.
Short-term financing is less expensive than long-term financing, but at the same
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time, short-term financing involves greater risk than long-term financing. The
choice between long-term and short-term financing involves a trade-off between
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319
risk and return. This trade-off may be further explained with the help of an
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example.
Suppose that a firm has an investment of Rs. 5 lakhs in its assets, Rs 3
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lakhs invested in fixed assets and Rs. 2 lakhs in current asset. It is expected thatassets yield a return of 18% before interest and taxes. Tax rate is assumed to be
50%. The firm maintains a debt ratio of 60%. Thus, the firm's assets are
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financed by 40% equity that is Rs 2,00,000 equity funds are invested in its total
assets. The firm has to decide whether it should use a 10% short-term debt or
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12% long-term debt. The financing plans would affect the return on equity fundsdifferently. The calculations of return on equity are shown in table.
Comment [h4]:
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Financing plans:--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Conservative Moderate AggressiveAmount(Rs.) Amount(Rs.) Amount(Rs.)
Fixed asset
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300000
300000
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300000
Current asset
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200000200000
200000
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Total asset
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500000500000
500000
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Short-term Debt(10%) 60000
150000
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300000
Long-term Debt(12%)240000
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1500000
EBIT
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90000
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9000090000
Less: Interest
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34800
33000
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30000EBT
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55200
57000
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60000Less: Tax 50%
27600
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28500
30000
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Net Income27600
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28500
30000
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Equity200000
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200000
200000
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Return on equity13.8%
14.25%
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15%
SF/TF
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12%
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30%
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60%where SF = Short-term fund; TF = Total funds
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It is clear from the table that return on equity is highest under theaggressive plan and lowest under the conservative plan. The result of moderate
plan is in between these two extremes. However, aggressive plan is more risky
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320
as, short-term financing as a ratio of total financing, is maximum in this case.
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The short-term financing to total financing ratio is minimum in case of the
conservative plan and, therefore, it is less risky.
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The figure 5.2 shows that the aggressive approach results in a low cost -high risk situation while the conservative approach results in a high cost-low
risk situation. The trade-off between risk and return give a financing mix that
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lies between these two extremes. For this purposes, the risk and return
associated with different financing mix can be analyzed and accordingly a
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decision can be taken up. One way of achieving a trade-off is to find out, in thefirst instance, the average working capital required (on the basis of minimum
and maximum during a period). Then this average working capital may be
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financed by long-term sources and other requirement if any, arising from time to
time may be met from short-term sources. For example, a firm may require a
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minimum and maximum working capital of Rs.25,000 and Rs.35,000respectively during a particular year. The firms have long-term sources of
Rs.30,000 (i.e. average of Rs.25,000 and Rs.35,000) and additional requirement
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over and above Rs.30,000 may out of short-term sources as and when the need
arises. Amount
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L
ow
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Conservativ
Profit
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eTrade off
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
s
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
d
n
f
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
f
u
Aggressive
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
s
t
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
o
o
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
C
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
High
Profit
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Amount
High
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LowNet working capital
Risk
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Risk
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321Fig. 5.2:The risk-return trade-off and financing mix
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Dimension 4: A sound working capital management policy
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General Rules
Set planning standards for stock days, debtor's days and creditor days.
Having set planning standard (as above) - keep up to them. Impress on staff
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that these targets are just as important as operating budgets and standardcosts.
Instill an understanding amongst the staff that working capital management
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produces profits.Rules on Stocks
Keep stock levels as low as possible, consistent with not running out of stock
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and not ordering stock in uneconomically small quantities.
Consider keeping stock in warehouse, drawing on it as needed and saving
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warehousing cost.Rules on Debtors/Customers
Assess all significant new customers for their ability to pay. Take references,
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examine accounts, and ask around. Try not to take on new customers who
would be poor payers.
Re-assess all significant customers periodically. Stop supplying existing
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customers who are poor payers-you may lose sales, but you are after quality
of business rather than quantity of business. Sometime poor-paying
customers suddenly find cash to settle invoices if their suppliers are being
cut off. If customers can't pay / won't pay let your competitors have them-
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give your competitors a few more problems.Consider factoring sales invoice ? the extra cost may be worth it in terms of
quick payment of sales revenue, less debtors administration and more time to
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carry out your business (Rather than spend time chasing debts)Consider offering discounts for prompt settlement of invoice, but only if the
discounts are lower than the costs of borrowing the money owed from other
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sources.322
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Rules on CreditorsDo not pay invoices too early - take advantage of credit offered by suppliers
- it's free!!
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Only pay early if the supplier is offering a discount. Even then, consider this
to be an investment. Will you get a better return by using working capital to
settle the invoice and take the discount than by investing the working capital
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in some other way?Dimension 5: Other techniques
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a) Ratio analysis:A ratio is a simple arithmetical expression of the relationship of one number to
another. The technique of ratio analysis can be employed for measuring short-
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term liquidity or working capital position of a firm. The following ratios may be
calculated for this purpose:
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(a) Current Ratio(b) Acid test Ratio
(c) Inventory turnover ratio
(d) Receivable turnover ratio
(e) Payable turnover ratio
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(f) Working capital turnover ratiob) Overtrading and undertrading:
The concepts of overtrading and undertrading are intimately connected with the
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net working capital position of the business. To be more precise they are
connected with the liquidity position of the business.
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Sometimes students may confuse over capitalization and undercapitalization with over trading and under trading. They are entirely different.
The former is concerned with investment on fixed assets where as the latter is
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concerned with investment into working capital. In this chapter since we are
particular about working capital management we can concentrate on overtrading
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and undertrading.323
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For sound working capital management one should understand what is
overtrading and undertrading and how it can be overcome and hence it is
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discussed in detail below:Overtrading:
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Overtrading is an aspect of undercapitalisation, which means an attempt beingmade by business concern to increase value of operation with insufficient
amount working capital. As a result the turnover ratio will be more, current and
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liquidity ratio will be less under this situation, the firm may not be in a position
to maintain the sufficient amount of current assets like cash, bills receivables,
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inventories etc., and has to depend upon the mercy of the suppliers to supplythem at the right time. The firm is also not in a position to extend credit to its
customers on one side and on the other side the firm may delay the payment too
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the creditors. This situation should not be continued for a longer period, as it is
dangerous for the business since disproportionate increase in the operations of
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the business without adequate working capital may bring a sudden collapse.The over trading should be carefully identified and overcome in the early
stage itself in order to place the firm in the right direction. In the case of
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overtrading, 1. A firm can witness higher amount of creditors than the debtors.
2. A firm may buy the fixed assets with the help of short-term sources such cash
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credit, overdraft, Trade creditors etc, and 3. The firm will have a low currentratio and a high turn over ratio. The cure for overtrading is very simple (1) The
firm can go for sufficient amount of long-term sources like issue of share, issue
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of debenture, term loans etc. (2) In case if the above is not possible the
operations have to be reduced to manage with the help of present sources of
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funds available. (3). Sell the business as a going concern.--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
324
Undertrading:
It is just the reverse to over trading. It means improper utilisation of working
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capital. Under this situation the firm's turnover ratio will be less current ratio
and liquidity ratio will be high. As a result the level of trading is low as
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compared to capital employed. It results in increase in current assets like cashbalance, bills receivable, inventories etc.,
This situation arises because of under utilisation of firm's resources.
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Under trading is an aspect of overcapitalization.
Higher current ratio and low turnover results in decreased return on
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investment. This can be improved by the firm's policy of adopting a moredynamic and result oriented approach, The firm may go for diversification,
expansion by under taking new profitable jobs, projects etc. If a firm is not able
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to do the above steps then it can try to return a part of the debt, which are idle.
c) Working Capital Leverage:
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The ultimate aim of business is increasing return on investment (ROI). How to
increase the ROI? This can be possible only with the help of increased turnover.
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How this can be possible. This is possible only by increasing the operatingcycle as much as possible. For example, if the cycle of cash ?> RM ?> WIP ?
> FG ?> Debtors can be rotated 8 times instead of 6 times, naturally the ROI
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will increase. This can be illustrated as given below.
Suppose the operating profit margin is 6% and Working capital turnover
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represented by operating cycle is 6 times then ROI is 36% Supposes it increaseby 2 times, the ROI will increase by 6x2 = 12%. However the turnover ratio not
only depend upon the current assets but it also takes the fixed assets but we can't
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forget current assets also one of the important element to increase to turnover.
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325Working Capital Leverage expresses the relationship between efficiency
of WCM and ROI. Insufficient Working Capital Management leads to decrease
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in the turn over which results in decrease profit which in turn results in
decreased ROI. On the other hand increase in operating cycle of the business
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efficiently will lead to increase in turnover and hence higher profitability.Key Words
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1. Conservative approach refers the working capital needs are primarilyfinanced by long-term sources and the use of short-term sources may be
restricted to unexpected and emergency situation.
2. Aggressive approach means the firm decide to finance a part of the
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permanent working capital by short-term sources.3. Hedging approach means trade-off between conservative and aggressive
approach.
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4. Working capital leverage expresses the relationship between efficiency ofworking capital management and return on investment.
5. Over trading is an aspect of under capitalization, which means an attempt
being made by business concern to increase value of operation with insufficient
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amount of working capital.6. Under trading means improper utilisation of working capital. It is due to
overcapitalisation.
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Self-assessment Questions/Exercises
1. "In managing working capital the finance manager faces the problem of
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compromising the conflicting goals of liquidity and profitability". Commentwhat strategy should the finance manager develop to solve this problem?
2. How would you judge the efficiency of the management of working capital
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in a business enterprise? Explain with the help of hypothetical data.326
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3. State the areas, which you consider, would require the particular attention ofthe management for effective working capital management.
4. Explain and illustrate the profitability vs liquidity trade-off in working
capital management.
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5. What is "conservative approach" to working capital financing? How is it
different from "aggressive approach"?
6. "Liquidity and profitability are competing goals for the finance manager"
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comment.7. "Merely increasing the total working capital does not necessarily reduce the
riskness of the firm, rather the composition of current assets is equally
important" Discuss.
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8. Should a firm finance its working capital requirements only with short term
financing? If not why?
9. Explain the risk return trade off of current assets financing.
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10. What is "Conservative Approach" to working capital financing? How is it
different from hedging approach?
11. Is the "Aggressive Approach" to working capital financing a good
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proposition? What may be the consequences?***
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327