MODULE 6
CONTENTS
Motivation: Meaning, theories of motivation-needs theory, two factor theory, Theory X and Y, application of motivational theories.
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Leadership: Meaning, styles of leadership, leadership theories, trait theories, behavioural theories, managerial and situational theories.
MOTIVATION
- Motivation has been defined by Michael J as "the act of stimulating someone or oneself to get a desired course of action".
- In the words of Lewis Allen, "Motivation is the work a manager performs to inspire, encourage and impel people to take required action".
- According to William G Scott, "Motivation is a process of stimulating people to action to accomplish desired goals".
- According to Koontz and O'Donnell, "Motivation is a general term applying to the entire class of drives, needs, wishes and similar forces".
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Nature and Characteristics of Motivation
- Motivation is an Internal Feeling
- Motivation is related to Needs
- Motivation Produces Goal-Directed Behaviour
- Motivation can be either Positive or Negative
- Motivation is a never ending Process
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Theories of Motivation
- Maslow's Need-Hierarchy Theory of Motivation
- Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
- McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y
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McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y
| THEORY X | THEORY Y |
|---|---|
| 1. Theory X assumes human beings inherently dislike work and are distasteful towards work. | 1. Theory Y assumes work is as natural as play or rest |
| 2. Theory X emphasizes that people do not have ambitions and they shrink responsibility | 2. Theory Y assumes the reverse. Given proper conditions, people have ambitions and accept responsibility |
| 3. Theory X assumes that people in general have little capacity for creativity | 3. According to Theory Y the creativity is widely distributed in the population |
| 4. According to Theory X, people lack self-motivation and require to be externally controlled and closely supervised in order to get maximum output. | 4. While in Theory Y people are self-directed and creative and practice Self-control |
| 5. Theory X emphasize upon centralization of authority in decision-making process | 5. Theory Y emphasize decentralization and greater participation in decision making process |
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
- According to Herzberg, there are some factors that result in satisfaction while there are other job factors that prevent dissatisfaction.
- According to Herzberg, the opposite of "Satisfaction" is "No satisfaction" and the opposite of "Dissatisfaction" is Dissatisfaction".
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Hygiene Factors
- Those job factors which are essential for existence of motivation at workplace.
- These do not lead to positive satisfaction for long-term. But if these factors are absent or these factors are non-existant at workplace then they lead to dissatisfaction.
- Hygiene factors are also called maintenance factors as they are required to avoid dissatisfaction.
Hygiene Factors
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- Pay - The pay or salary structure should be appropriate and reasonable.
- Company Policies and administrative policies - should not be too rigid. They should be fair and clear.
- Fringe benefits - The employees should be offered health care plans (mediclaim), benefits for the family members, employee help programmes, etc.
- Physical Working conditions - The working conditions should be safe, clean and hygienic.
- Status - The employees' status within the organization should be familiar and retained.
- Interpersonal relations - The relationship of the employee with his peers, superiors and subordinates should be appropriate and acceptable.
- Job Security - The organization must provide job security to the employees
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Motivational factors
- The motivational factors yield positive satisfaction.
- These factors motivate the employees for superior performance. These factors are called satisfiers.
- Employees find these factors intrinsically rewarding.
- Motivators are necessary to keep satisfaction and job performance high.
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Motivational factors
- Recognition
- Sense of achievement
- Growth and promotional opportunities
- Responsibility
- Meaningfulness of the work
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Application of Motivational Theories
Motivating by Changing the Work Environment:
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- Skill variety
- Task significance
- Autonomy
- Feedback
Application of Motivational Theories
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Redesigning the Job
- Job Rotation
- Job Enlargement
- Job Enrichment
Application of Motivational Theories
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Alternate Work Arrangements
- Flextime
- Job Sharing
- Telecommuting
Application of Motivational Theories
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Rewarding Employees
- Merit-Based Pay
- Bonuses
- Skill-Based Pay
- Profit-Sharing Plans
- Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs)
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BASIC MODEL OF MOTIVATION
Motivating Professionals
How are "professionals" different?
- Receive a great deal of "intrinsic" satisfaction from their work.
- Strong and long-term commitment to their field of expertise.
- Well paid/Chief reward is work itself.
- Value support.
- More focused on work as central life interest.
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Motivating Professionals
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- Provide challenging projects
- Give them autonomy in work.
- Reward with educational opportunities
- Recognize their contributions.
Motivating Contingent Workers
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- Contingent or temporary workers have little or no job security/stability and therefore, they don't identify with the organization or display the commitment of permanent employees.
- Contingent or temporary workers are typically provided with little or no health care, pensions, or similar benefits.
Motivating Contingent Workers
- Employees want more respect
- Make jobs more appealing
- Raise pay levels
- Greatest motivating factor is the opportunity to gain permanent employment.
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Motivating Unionized Employees
- Create better work environments
- Show appreciation
- Provide opportunities for training and advancement
- Listen to employees concerns
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Part-B-Leadership
Leadership
- "Leadership" according to Alford and Beatty "is the ability to secure desirable actions from a group of followers voluntarily, without the use of coercion".
- A leader shows the way by his own example. He is not a pusher, he pulls rather than pushes.
- Leadership is a process of influencing a group.
- Leadership is the ability of a manager to induce subordinates to work with confidence and zeal.
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Nature of Leadership
- Leadership implies the existence of followers.
- Leadership involves a community of interest between the leader and followers.
- Leadership involves an unequal distribution of authority among leaders and members.
- Leadership is a process of Influence.
- A leader must be exemplary.
- A Leader ensures absolute justice
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Styles / Types of Leadership
- Autocratic or Dictatorial Leadership
- In this leadership style the leader assumes responsibility for all actions. Mainly he requires implicit obedience from the group in following his orders.
- Democratic Leadership
- The leader draws ideas and suggestions from the group by discussion, consultation and participation.
- Laissez-faire Free Rein Leadership
- In this leadership style the leader depends entirely on his subordinates to establish their goals and to make their own decisions.
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Theories of Leadership
- Trait Theory
- Behavioural Approach
- Situational Approach
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Trait Theory
- This approach stresses the in-born qualities and characteristics of an individual.
- One way is to identify the distinguishing characteristics he possesses.
- Another way is to analyze the past and present of the leader in terms of his background, education, career events, etc and build up a list of traits or attributes the leader possesses.
- A number of studies have been conducted to identify traits or characteristics that are used to distinguish successful from unsuccessful leaders.
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Trait Theory
- Physical characteristics - Age, appearance and height
- Social background - Education, social status and mobility
- Intelligence - Judgment, knowledge, decisiveness and fluency of speech
- Personality - Alertness, dominance, extroversion, independence, creativity and self-confidence
- Task-related Characteristics - Achievement drive, initiative, persistence, enterprise and task orientation.
- Social characteristics — Attractiveness, popularity, sociability and interpersonal skills
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Behavioural Approach
- When it was apparent that the trait approach was not adequate to explain the leadership phenomenon, the theorists directed their attention to the study of leader behavior.
- Managerial Grid Study - Blake and Mouton
- Ohio State University (1940s)
- University of Michigan (1950s)
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Ohio State University (1940s)
- The Leaders Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ)
- Ohio State University developed a list of 150 statements.
- The list was designed to measure different behavioral leadership dimensions.
- People Oriented Leaders -Encouraging, Observing, Listening, Coaching and Mentoring
- Task Oriented Leaders- Initiating, Organizing, Clarifying, Information Gathering
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University of Michigan (1950s)
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- In addition to the two characteristics identified by the previous study, Participative Leadership was introduced.
- Participative leadership is one of the most important aspects of professional life.
- If a group or team is lead by an effective and good leader, it is more or likely that they will be able to fulfill their as well as the organizations goal and objectives successfully.
Situational Leadership Theories
- The behaviour approach, learning from the weaknesses of the trait approach, went one step further to explain the practices available to a leader.
- But this again failed to indicate a "best" style of leadership, which was universally appropriate.
- No style is good or bad, it is the situation that makes it so.
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Situational Leadership Theories
Fiedler's Contingency Theory
Leader Effectiveness = f (leader style, situation favorability)
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Group performance is a result of interaction of two factors.
- Leadership style
- Situational favorableness
Leadership Style
- Leadership Style
- This is the consistent system of interactions that takes place between a leader and work group
- An individual's leadership style depends upon his or her personality and is, thus, fixed.
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Least Preferred Coworker (LPC)
- The least-preferred coworker (LPC) scale classifies leadership styles.
- Describe the one person with whom she worked the least well with.
- From a scale of 1 through 8, describe that person on a series of bipolar scales:
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Unfriendly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Friendly
Uncooperative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cooperative
Hostile 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Supportive
Guarded 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Open
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Leadership Styles
Relationship oriented:
A high LPC score suggests that the leader has a human relations orientation
Task oriented:
A low LPC score indicates a task orientation
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Fiedler's logic:
Individuals who rate their least preferred coworker in a favorable light derive satisfaction out of interpersonal relationship; those who rate the coworker unfavorably get satisfaction out of successful task performance
Situation Favorability
- Leader-member relations: The degree to which the employees accept the leader
- Task structure: The degree to which subordinates jobs are described in detail
- Position power: The amount of authority the leader possesses by virtue of his or her position in the organization.
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Transactional Leadership
- Leaders who guide or motivate followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and requirements.
- Also known as managerial leadership focuses on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance
Transformational Leadership
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- Leaders who inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests and who are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on followers
- Transformational leadership enhances the motivation, morale, and performance of followers through a variety of mechanisms.
Charismatic Leadership
- Max Weber, a sociologist, defined charisma as "a certain quality of an individual personality, by virtue of which he or she is set apart from ordinary people and treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or at least specifically exceptional powers or qualities.
- Charismatic leaders are likely to be extraverted, self-confident, and achievement oriented.
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