Download VTU (Visvesvaraya Technological University) MBA 2nd Semester (Second Semester) 17MBA23-Research Methodology RM Module 6 Important Lecture Notes (MBA Study Material Notes)
Data Analysis & Report Writing
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Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
Importance of Research Report Writing
? Communicates the information
? Helps in evaluation
? Facilitates measuring performance
? Predicts future trends
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
Importance of Research Report Writing
? Communicates the information
? Helps in evaluation
? Facilitates measuring performance
? Predicts future trends
Presentation ? Essential Characteristics
? Objectives :
? Preparation
? First impression
? Facial expression
? Visual aids
? Audience involvements
? Effective conclusion
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
Importance of Research Report Writing
? Communicates the information
? Helps in evaluation
? Facilitates measuring performance
? Predicts future trends
Presentation ? Essential Characteristics
? Objectives :
? Preparation
? First impression
? Facial expression
? Visual aids
? Audience involvements
? Effective conclusion
Elements of Presentation
? Presenter
? Specific content with a definite objective
? Why who where when what and how
? Audience
? Who
? Why
? Their background
? How many
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
Importance of Research Report Writing
? Communicates the information
? Helps in evaluation
? Facilitates measuring performance
? Predicts future trends
Presentation ? Essential Characteristics
? Objectives :
? Preparation
? First impression
? Facial expression
? Visual aids
? Audience involvements
? Effective conclusion
Elements of Presentation
? Presenter
? Specific content with a definite objective
? Why who where when what and how
? Audience
? Who
? Why
? Their background
? How many
Factors affecting Presentation
? Audience analysis
? Personal appearance
? Opening and closing of presentation
? Language
? Body language
? Use of visuals
? Organization of presentation
? Voice
? Answering the questions
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
Importance of Research Report Writing
? Communicates the information
? Helps in evaluation
? Facilitates measuring performance
? Predicts future trends
Presentation ? Essential Characteristics
? Objectives :
? Preparation
? First impression
? Facial expression
? Visual aids
? Audience involvements
? Effective conclusion
Elements of Presentation
? Presenter
? Specific content with a definite objective
? Why who where when what and how
? Audience
? Who
? Why
? Their background
? How many
Factors affecting Presentation
? Audience analysis
? Personal appearance
? Opening and closing of presentation
? Language
? Body language
? Use of visuals
? Organization of presentation
? Voice
? Answering the questions
Processing of data--Editing, Coding, Classification
and tabulation
? After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into
meaningful statement; includes
? Data processing, Data analysis, and Data interpretation and
presentation.
? Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations
necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of
manipulation) could be manual or electronic.
? It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding,
computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
Importance of Research Report Writing
? Communicates the information
? Helps in evaluation
? Facilitates measuring performance
? Predicts future trends
Presentation ? Essential Characteristics
? Objectives :
? Preparation
? First impression
? Facial expression
? Visual aids
? Audience involvements
? Effective conclusion
Elements of Presentation
? Presenter
? Specific content with a definite objective
? Why who where when what and how
? Audience
? Who
? Why
? Their background
? How many
Factors affecting Presentation
? Audience analysis
? Personal appearance
? Opening and closing of presentation
? Language
? Body language
? Use of visuals
? Organization of presentation
? Voice
? Answering the questions
Processing of data--Editing, Coding, Classification
and tabulation
? After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into
meaningful statement; includes
? Data processing, Data analysis, and Data interpretation and
presentation.
? Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations
necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of
manipulation) could be manual or electronic.
? It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding,
computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
Editing data :
? Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity.
Example: Data collected through questionnaire and schedules may
have answers which may not be ticked at proper places, or some
questions may be left unanswered.
Sometimes information may be given in a form which needs
reconstruction in a category designed for analysis, e.g., converting
daily/monthly income in annual income and so on.
The researcher has to take a decision as to how to edit it.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
Importance of Research Report Writing
? Communicates the information
? Helps in evaluation
? Facilitates measuring performance
? Predicts future trends
Presentation ? Essential Characteristics
? Objectives :
? Preparation
? First impression
? Facial expression
? Visual aids
? Audience involvements
? Effective conclusion
Elements of Presentation
? Presenter
? Specific content with a definite objective
? Why who where when what and how
? Audience
? Who
? Why
? Their background
? How many
Factors affecting Presentation
? Audience analysis
? Personal appearance
? Opening and closing of presentation
? Language
? Body language
? Use of visuals
? Organization of presentation
? Voice
? Answering the questions
Processing of data--Editing, Coding, Classification
and tabulation
? After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into
meaningful statement; includes
? Data processing, Data analysis, and Data interpretation and
presentation.
? Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations
necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of
manipulation) could be manual or electronic.
? It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding,
computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
Editing data :
? Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity.
Example: Data collected through questionnaire and schedules may
have answers which may not be ticked at proper places, or some
questions may be left unanswered.
Sometimes information may be given in a form which needs
reconstruction in a category designed for analysis, e.g., converting
daily/monthly income in annual income and so on.
The researcher has to take a decision as to how to edit it.
? Editing also needs that data are relevant and appropriate and errors
are modified.
? Occasionally, the investigator makes a mistake and records and
impossible answer. ?How much red chilies do you use in a month?.
The answer is written as ?4 kilos?. Can a family of three members use
four kilo chilies in a month? The correct answer could be ?0.4 kilo?.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
Importance of Research Report Writing
? Communicates the information
? Helps in evaluation
? Facilitates measuring performance
? Predicts future trends
Presentation ? Essential Characteristics
? Objectives :
? Preparation
? First impression
? Facial expression
? Visual aids
? Audience involvements
? Effective conclusion
Elements of Presentation
? Presenter
? Specific content with a definite objective
? Why who where when what and how
? Audience
? Who
? Why
? Their background
? How many
Factors affecting Presentation
? Audience analysis
? Personal appearance
? Opening and closing of presentation
? Language
? Body language
? Use of visuals
? Organization of presentation
? Voice
? Answering the questions
Processing of data--Editing, Coding, Classification
and tabulation
? After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into
meaningful statement; includes
? Data processing, Data analysis, and Data interpretation and
presentation.
? Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations
necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of
manipulation) could be manual or electronic.
? It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding,
computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
Editing data :
? Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity.
Example: Data collected through questionnaire and schedules may
have answers which may not be ticked at proper places, or some
questions may be left unanswered.
Sometimes information may be given in a form which needs
reconstruction in a category designed for analysis, e.g., converting
daily/monthly income in annual income and so on.
The researcher has to take a decision as to how to edit it.
? Editing also needs that data are relevant and appropriate and errors
are modified.
? Occasionally, the investigator makes a mistake and records and
impossible answer. ?How much red chilies do you use in a month?.
The answer is written as ?4 kilos?. Can a family of three members use
four kilo chilies in a month? The correct answer could be ?0.4 kilo?.
Coding of data :
? Coding is translating answers into numerical values or assigning
numbers to the various categories of a variable to be used in data
analysis.
? Coding is done by using a code book, code sheet, and a computer
card.
? Coding is done on the basis of the instructions given in the codebook.
The code book gives a numerical code for each variable.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
Importance of Research Report Writing
? Communicates the information
? Helps in evaluation
? Facilitates measuring performance
? Predicts future trends
Presentation ? Essential Characteristics
? Objectives :
? Preparation
? First impression
? Facial expression
? Visual aids
? Audience involvements
? Effective conclusion
Elements of Presentation
? Presenter
? Specific content with a definite objective
? Why who where when what and how
? Audience
? Who
? Why
? Their background
? How many
Factors affecting Presentation
? Audience analysis
? Personal appearance
? Opening and closing of presentation
? Language
? Body language
? Use of visuals
? Organization of presentation
? Voice
? Answering the questions
Processing of data--Editing, Coding, Classification
and tabulation
? After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into
meaningful statement; includes
? Data processing, Data analysis, and Data interpretation and
presentation.
? Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations
necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of
manipulation) could be manual or electronic.
? It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding,
computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
Editing data :
? Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity.
Example: Data collected through questionnaire and schedules may
have answers which may not be ticked at proper places, or some
questions may be left unanswered.
Sometimes information may be given in a form which needs
reconstruction in a category designed for analysis, e.g., converting
daily/monthly income in annual income and so on.
The researcher has to take a decision as to how to edit it.
? Editing also needs that data are relevant and appropriate and errors
are modified.
? Occasionally, the investigator makes a mistake and records and
impossible answer. ?How much red chilies do you use in a month?.
The answer is written as ?4 kilos?. Can a family of three members use
four kilo chilies in a month? The correct answer could be ?0.4 kilo?.
Coding of data :
? Coding is translating answers into numerical values or assigning
numbers to the various categories of a variable to be used in data
analysis.
? Coding is done by using a code book, code sheet, and a computer
card.
? Coding is done on the basis of the instructions given in the codebook.
The code book gives a numerical code for each variable.
Data classification/distribution :
? Sarantakos (1998: 343) defines distribution of data as a form of
classification of scores obtained for the various categories or a
particular variable.
There are four types of distributions:
1. Frequency distribution
2. Percentage distribution
3. Cumulative distribution
4. Statistical distributions
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
Importance of Research Report Writing
? Communicates the information
? Helps in evaluation
? Facilitates measuring performance
? Predicts future trends
Presentation ? Essential Characteristics
? Objectives :
? Preparation
? First impression
? Facial expression
? Visual aids
? Audience involvements
? Effective conclusion
Elements of Presentation
? Presenter
? Specific content with a definite objective
? Why who where when what and how
? Audience
? Who
? Why
? Their background
? How many
Factors affecting Presentation
? Audience analysis
? Personal appearance
? Opening and closing of presentation
? Language
? Body language
? Use of visuals
? Organization of presentation
? Voice
? Answering the questions
Processing of data--Editing, Coding, Classification
and tabulation
? After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into
meaningful statement; includes
? Data processing, Data analysis, and Data interpretation and
presentation.
? Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations
necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of
manipulation) could be manual or electronic.
? It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding,
computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
Editing data :
? Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity.
Example: Data collected through questionnaire and schedules may
have answers which may not be ticked at proper places, or some
questions may be left unanswered.
Sometimes information may be given in a form which needs
reconstruction in a category designed for analysis, e.g., converting
daily/monthly income in annual income and so on.
The researcher has to take a decision as to how to edit it.
? Editing also needs that data are relevant and appropriate and errors
are modified.
? Occasionally, the investigator makes a mistake and records and
impossible answer. ?How much red chilies do you use in a month?.
The answer is written as ?4 kilos?. Can a family of three members use
four kilo chilies in a month? The correct answer could be ?0.4 kilo?.
Coding of data :
? Coding is translating answers into numerical values or assigning
numbers to the various categories of a variable to be used in data
analysis.
? Coding is done by using a code book, code sheet, and a computer
card.
? Coding is done on the basis of the instructions given in the codebook.
The code book gives a numerical code for each variable.
Data classification/distribution :
? Sarantakos (1998: 343) defines distribution of data as a form of
classification of scores obtained for the various categories or a
particular variable.
There are four types of distributions:
1. Frequency distribution
2. Percentage distribution
3. Cumulative distribution
4. Statistical distributions
Frequency distribution :
? In social science research, frequency distribution is very common. It
presents the frequency of occurrences of certain categories. This
distribution appears in two forms:
? Ungrouped: Here, the scores are not collapsed into categories, e.g.,
distribution of ages of the students of a BJ (MC) class, each age value
(e.g., 18, 19, 20, and so on) will be presented separately in the
distribution.
Grouped: Here, the scores are collapsed into categories, so that 2 or 3
scores are presented together as a group. For example, in the above
age distribution groups like 18-20, 21-22 etc., can be formed)
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
Importance of Research Report Writing
? Communicates the information
? Helps in evaluation
? Facilitates measuring performance
? Predicts future trends
Presentation ? Essential Characteristics
? Objectives :
? Preparation
? First impression
? Facial expression
? Visual aids
? Audience involvements
? Effective conclusion
Elements of Presentation
? Presenter
? Specific content with a definite objective
? Why who where when what and how
? Audience
? Who
? Why
? Their background
? How many
Factors affecting Presentation
? Audience analysis
? Personal appearance
? Opening and closing of presentation
? Language
? Body language
? Use of visuals
? Organization of presentation
? Voice
? Answering the questions
Processing of data--Editing, Coding, Classification
and tabulation
? After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into
meaningful statement; includes
? Data processing, Data analysis, and Data interpretation and
presentation.
? Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations
necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of
manipulation) could be manual or electronic.
? It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding,
computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
Editing data :
? Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity.
Example: Data collected through questionnaire and schedules may
have answers which may not be ticked at proper places, or some
questions may be left unanswered.
Sometimes information may be given in a form which needs
reconstruction in a category designed for analysis, e.g., converting
daily/monthly income in annual income and so on.
The researcher has to take a decision as to how to edit it.
? Editing also needs that data are relevant and appropriate and errors
are modified.
? Occasionally, the investigator makes a mistake and records and
impossible answer. ?How much red chilies do you use in a month?.
The answer is written as ?4 kilos?. Can a family of three members use
four kilo chilies in a month? The correct answer could be ?0.4 kilo?.
Coding of data :
? Coding is translating answers into numerical values or assigning
numbers to the various categories of a variable to be used in data
analysis.
? Coding is done by using a code book, code sheet, and a computer
card.
? Coding is done on the basis of the instructions given in the codebook.
The code book gives a numerical code for each variable.
Data classification/distribution :
? Sarantakos (1998: 343) defines distribution of data as a form of
classification of scores obtained for the various categories or a
particular variable.
There are four types of distributions:
1. Frequency distribution
2. Percentage distribution
3. Cumulative distribution
4. Statistical distributions
Frequency distribution :
? In social science research, frequency distribution is very common. It
presents the frequency of occurrences of certain categories. This
distribution appears in two forms:
? Ungrouped: Here, the scores are not collapsed into categories, e.g.,
distribution of ages of the students of a BJ (MC) class, each age value
(e.g., 18, 19, 20, and so on) will be presented separately in the
distribution.
Grouped: Here, the scores are collapsed into categories, so that 2 or 3
scores are presented together as a group. For example, in the above
age distribution groups like 18-20, 21-22 etc., can be formed)
Percentage distribution :
It is also possible to give frequencies not in absolute numbers but in
percentages.
For instance instead of saying 200 respondents of total 2000 had a
monthly income of less than Rs. 500, we can say 10% of the
respondents have a monthly income of less than Rs. 500.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
Importance of Research Report Writing
? Communicates the information
? Helps in evaluation
? Facilitates measuring performance
? Predicts future trends
Presentation ? Essential Characteristics
? Objectives :
? Preparation
? First impression
? Facial expression
? Visual aids
? Audience involvements
? Effective conclusion
Elements of Presentation
? Presenter
? Specific content with a definite objective
? Why who where when what and how
? Audience
? Who
? Why
? Their background
? How many
Factors affecting Presentation
? Audience analysis
? Personal appearance
? Opening and closing of presentation
? Language
? Body language
? Use of visuals
? Organization of presentation
? Voice
? Answering the questions
Processing of data--Editing, Coding, Classification
and tabulation
? After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into
meaningful statement; includes
? Data processing, Data analysis, and Data interpretation and
presentation.
? Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations
necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of
manipulation) could be manual or electronic.
? It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding,
computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
Editing data :
? Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity.
Example: Data collected through questionnaire and schedules may
have answers which may not be ticked at proper places, or some
questions may be left unanswered.
Sometimes information may be given in a form which needs
reconstruction in a category designed for analysis, e.g., converting
daily/monthly income in annual income and so on.
The researcher has to take a decision as to how to edit it.
? Editing also needs that data are relevant and appropriate and errors
are modified.
? Occasionally, the investigator makes a mistake and records and
impossible answer. ?How much red chilies do you use in a month?.
The answer is written as ?4 kilos?. Can a family of three members use
four kilo chilies in a month? The correct answer could be ?0.4 kilo?.
Coding of data :
? Coding is translating answers into numerical values or assigning
numbers to the various categories of a variable to be used in data
analysis.
? Coding is done by using a code book, code sheet, and a computer
card.
? Coding is done on the basis of the instructions given in the codebook.
The code book gives a numerical code for each variable.
Data classification/distribution :
? Sarantakos (1998: 343) defines distribution of data as a form of
classification of scores obtained for the various categories or a
particular variable.
There are four types of distributions:
1. Frequency distribution
2. Percentage distribution
3. Cumulative distribution
4. Statistical distributions
Frequency distribution :
? In social science research, frequency distribution is very common. It
presents the frequency of occurrences of certain categories. This
distribution appears in two forms:
? Ungrouped: Here, the scores are not collapsed into categories, e.g.,
distribution of ages of the students of a BJ (MC) class, each age value
(e.g., 18, 19, 20, and so on) will be presented separately in the
distribution.
Grouped: Here, the scores are collapsed into categories, so that 2 or 3
scores are presented together as a group. For example, in the above
age distribution groups like 18-20, 21-22 etc., can be formed)
Percentage distribution :
It is also possible to give frequencies not in absolute numbers but in
percentages.
For instance instead of saying 200 respondents of total 2000 had a
monthly income of less than Rs. 500, we can say 10% of the
respondents have a monthly income of less than Rs. 500.
Cumulative distribution :
?
It tells how often the value of the random variable is less than or
equal to a particular reference value.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
Importance of Research Report Writing
? Communicates the information
? Helps in evaluation
? Facilitates measuring performance
? Predicts future trends
Presentation ? Essential Characteristics
? Objectives :
? Preparation
? First impression
? Facial expression
? Visual aids
? Audience involvements
? Effective conclusion
Elements of Presentation
? Presenter
? Specific content with a definite objective
? Why who where when what and how
? Audience
? Who
? Why
? Their background
? How many
Factors affecting Presentation
? Audience analysis
? Personal appearance
? Opening and closing of presentation
? Language
? Body language
? Use of visuals
? Organization of presentation
? Voice
? Answering the questions
Processing of data--Editing, Coding, Classification
and tabulation
? After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into
meaningful statement; includes
? Data processing, Data analysis, and Data interpretation and
presentation.
? Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations
necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of
manipulation) could be manual or electronic.
? It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding,
computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
Editing data :
? Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity.
Example: Data collected through questionnaire and schedules may
have answers which may not be ticked at proper places, or some
questions may be left unanswered.
Sometimes information may be given in a form which needs
reconstruction in a category designed for analysis, e.g., converting
daily/monthly income in annual income and so on.
The researcher has to take a decision as to how to edit it.
? Editing also needs that data are relevant and appropriate and errors
are modified.
? Occasionally, the investigator makes a mistake and records and
impossible answer. ?How much red chilies do you use in a month?.
The answer is written as ?4 kilos?. Can a family of three members use
four kilo chilies in a month? The correct answer could be ?0.4 kilo?.
Coding of data :
? Coding is translating answers into numerical values or assigning
numbers to the various categories of a variable to be used in data
analysis.
? Coding is done by using a code book, code sheet, and a computer
card.
? Coding is done on the basis of the instructions given in the codebook.
The code book gives a numerical code for each variable.
Data classification/distribution :
? Sarantakos (1998: 343) defines distribution of data as a form of
classification of scores obtained for the various categories or a
particular variable.
There are four types of distributions:
1. Frequency distribution
2. Percentage distribution
3. Cumulative distribution
4. Statistical distributions
Frequency distribution :
? In social science research, frequency distribution is very common. It
presents the frequency of occurrences of certain categories. This
distribution appears in two forms:
? Ungrouped: Here, the scores are not collapsed into categories, e.g.,
distribution of ages of the students of a BJ (MC) class, each age value
(e.g., 18, 19, 20, and so on) will be presented separately in the
distribution.
Grouped: Here, the scores are collapsed into categories, so that 2 or 3
scores are presented together as a group. For example, in the above
age distribution groups like 18-20, 21-22 etc., can be formed)
Percentage distribution :
It is also possible to give frequencies not in absolute numbers but in
percentages.
For instance instead of saying 200 respondents of total 2000 had a
monthly income of less than Rs. 500, we can say 10% of the
respondents have a monthly income of less than Rs. 500.
Cumulative distribution :
?
It tells how often the value of the random variable is less than or
equal to a particular reference value.
Statistical data distribution :
? In this type of data distribution, some measure of average is found
out of a sample of respondents.
? Several kind of averages are available (mean, median, mode) and the
researcher must decide which is most suitable to his purpose.
? Once the average has been calculated, the question arises: how
representative a figure it is, i.e., how closely the answers are bunched
around it.
? Are most of them very close to it or is there a wide range of
variation?
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
Importance of Research Report Writing
? Communicates the information
? Helps in evaluation
? Facilitates measuring performance
? Predicts future trends
Presentation ? Essential Characteristics
? Objectives :
? Preparation
? First impression
? Facial expression
? Visual aids
? Audience involvements
? Effective conclusion
Elements of Presentation
? Presenter
? Specific content with a definite objective
? Why who where when what and how
? Audience
? Who
? Why
? Their background
? How many
Factors affecting Presentation
? Audience analysis
? Personal appearance
? Opening and closing of presentation
? Language
? Body language
? Use of visuals
? Organization of presentation
? Voice
? Answering the questions
Processing of data--Editing, Coding, Classification
and tabulation
? After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into
meaningful statement; includes
? Data processing, Data analysis, and Data interpretation and
presentation.
? Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations
necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of
manipulation) could be manual or electronic.
? It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding,
computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
Editing data :
? Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity.
Example: Data collected through questionnaire and schedules may
have answers which may not be ticked at proper places, or some
questions may be left unanswered.
Sometimes information may be given in a form which needs
reconstruction in a category designed for analysis, e.g., converting
daily/monthly income in annual income and so on.
The researcher has to take a decision as to how to edit it.
? Editing also needs that data are relevant and appropriate and errors
are modified.
? Occasionally, the investigator makes a mistake and records and
impossible answer. ?How much red chilies do you use in a month?.
The answer is written as ?4 kilos?. Can a family of three members use
four kilo chilies in a month? The correct answer could be ?0.4 kilo?.
Coding of data :
? Coding is translating answers into numerical values or assigning
numbers to the various categories of a variable to be used in data
analysis.
? Coding is done by using a code book, code sheet, and a computer
card.
? Coding is done on the basis of the instructions given in the codebook.
The code book gives a numerical code for each variable.
Data classification/distribution :
? Sarantakos (1998: 343) defines distribution of data as a form of
classification of scores obtained for the various categories or a
particular variable.
There are four types of distributions:
1. Frequency distribution
2. Percentage distribution
3. Cumulative distribution
4. Statistical distributions
Frequency distribution :
? In social science research, frequency distribution is very common. It
presents the frequency of occurrences of certain categories. This
distribution appears in two forms:
? Ungrouped: Here, the scores are not collapsed into categories, e.g.,
distribution of ages of the students of a BJ (MC) class, each age value
(e.g., 18, 19, 20, and so on) will be presented separately in the
distribution.
Grouped: Here, the scores are collapsed into categories, so that 2 or 3
scores are presented together as a group. For example, in the above
age distribution groups like 18-20, 21-22 etc., can be formed)
Percentage distribution :
It is also possible to give frequencies not in absolute numbers but in
percentages.
For instance instead of saying 200 respondents of total 2000 had a
monthly income of less than Rs. 500, we can say 10% of the
respondents have a monthly income of less than Rs. 500.
Cumulative distribution :
?
It tells how often the value of the random variable is less than or
equal to a particular reference value.
Statistical data distribution :
? In this type of data distribution, some measure of average is found
out of a sample of respondents.
? Several kind of averages are available (mean, median, mode) and the
researcher must decide which is most suitable to his purpose.
? Once the average has been calculated, the question arises: how
representative a figure it is, i.e., how closely the answers are bunched
around it.
? Are most of them very close to it or is there a wide range of
variation?
Tabulation of data :
After editing, which ensures that the information on the schedule is
accurate and categorized in a suitable form, the data are put together
in some kinds of tables and may also undergo some other forms of
statistical analysis.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
Importance of Research Report Writing
? Communicates the information
? Helps in evaluation
? Facilitates measuring performance
? Predicts future trends
Presentation ? Essential Characteristics
? Objectives :
? Preparation
? First impression
? Facial expression
? Visual aids
? Audience involvements
? Effective conclusion
Elements of Presentation
? Presenter
? Specific content with a definite objective
? Why who where when what and how
? Audience
? Who
? Why
? Their background
? How many
Factors affecting Presentation
? Audience analysis
? Personal appearance
? Opening and closing of presentation
? Language
? Body language
? Use of visuals
? Organization of presentation
? Voice
? Answering the questions
Processing of data--Editing, Coding, Classification
and tabulation
? After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into
meaningful statement; includes
? Data processing, Data analysis, and Data interpretation and
presentation.
? Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations
necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of
manipulation) could be manual or electronic.
? It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding,
computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
Editing data :
? Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity.
Example: Data collected through questionnaire and schedules may
have answers which may not be ticked at proper places, or some
questions may be left unanswered.
Sometimes information may be given in a form which needs
reconstruction in a category designed for analysis, e.g., converting
daily/monthly income in annual income and so on.
The researcher has to take a decision as to how to edit it.
? Editing also needs that data are relevant and appropriate and errors
are modified.
? Occasionally, the investigator makes a mistake and records and
impossible answer. ?How much red chilies do you use in a month?.
The answer is written as ?4 kilos?. Can a family of three members use
four kilo chilies in a month? The correct answer could be ?0.4 kilo?.
Coding of data :
? Coding is translating answers into numerical values or assigning
numbers to the various categories of a variable to be used in data
analysis.
? Coding is done by using a code book, code sheet, and a computer
card.
? Coding is done on the basis of the instructions given in the codebook.
The code book gives a numerical code for each variable.
Data classification/distribution :
? Sarantakos (1998: 343) defines distribution of data as a form of
classification of scores obtained for the various categories or a
particular variable.
There are four types of distributions:
1. Frequency distribution
2. Percentage distribution
3. Cumulative distribution
4. Statistical distributions
Frequency distribution :
? In social science research, frequency distribution is very common. It
presents the frequency of occurrences of certain categories. This
distribution appears in two forms:
? Ungrouped: Here, the scores are not collapsed into categories, e.g.,
distribution of ages of the students of a BJ (MC) class, each age value
(e.g., 18, 19, 20, and so on) will be presented separately in the
distribution.
Grouped: Here, the scores are collapsed into categories, so that 2 or 3
scores are presented together as a group. For example, in the above
age distribution groups like 18-20, 21-22 etc., can be formed)
Percentage distribution :
It is also possible to give frequencies not in absolute numbers but in
percentages.
For instance instead of saying 200 respondents of total 2000 had a
monthly income of less than Rs. 500, we can say 10% of the
respondents have a monthly income of less than Rs. 500.
Cumulative distribution :
?
It tells how often the value of the random variable is less than or
equal to a particular reference value.
Statistical data distribution :
? In this type of data distribution, some measure of average is found
out of a sample of respondents.
? Several kind of averages are available (mean, median, mode) and the
researcher must decide which is most suitable to his purpose.
? Once the average has been calculated, the question arises: how
representative a figure it is, i.e., how closely the answers are bunched
around it.
? Are most of them very close to it or is there a wide range of
variation?
Tabulation of data :
After editing, which ensures that the information on the schedule is
accurate and categorized in a suitable form, the data are put together
in some kinds of tables and may also undergo some other forms of
statistical analysis.
? Table can be prepared manually and/or by computers.
? For a small study of 100 to 200 persons, there may be little point in
tabulating by computer since this necessitates putting the data on
punched cards.
? But for a survey analysis involving a large number of respondents and
requiring cross tabulation involving more than two variables, hand
tabulation will be inappropriate and time consuming.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
Importance of Research Report Writing
? Communicates the information
? Helps in evaluation
? Facilitates measuring performance
? Predicts future trends
Presentation ? Essential Characteristics
? Objectives :
? Preparation
? First impression
? Facial expression
? Visual aids
? Audience involvements
? Effective conclusion
Elements of Presentation
? Presenter
? Specific content with a definite objective
? Why who where when what and how
? Audience
? Who
? Why
? Their background
? How many
Factors affecting Presentation
? Audience analysis
? Personal appearance
? Opening and closing of presentation
? Language
? Body language
? Use of visuals
? Organization of presentation
? Voice
? Answering the questions
Processing of data--Editing, Coding, Classification
and tabulation
? After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into
meaningful statement; includes
? Data processing, Data analysis, and Data interpretation and
presentation.
? Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations
necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of
manipulation) could be manual or electronic.
? It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding,
computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
Editing data :
? Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity.
Example: Data collected through questionnaire and schedules may
have answers which may not be ticked at proper places, or some
questions may be left unanswered.
Sometimes information may be given in a form which needs
reconstruction in a category designed for analysis, e.g., converting
daily/monthly income in annual income and so on.
The researcher has to take a decision as to how to edit it.
? Editing also needs that data are relevant and appropriate and errors
are modified.
? Occasionally, the investigator makes a mistake and records and
impossible answer. ?How much red chilies do you use in a month?.
The answer is written as ?4 kilos?. Can a family of three members use
four kilo chilies in a month? The correct answer could be ?0.4 kilo?.
Coding of data :
? Coding is translating answers into numerical values or assigning
numbers to the various categories of a variable to be used in data
analysis.
? Coding is done by using a code book, code sheet, and a computer
card.
? Coding is done on the basis of the instructions given in the codebook.
The code book gives a numerical code for each variable.
Data classification/distribution :
? Sarantakos (1998: 343) defines distribution of data as a form of
classification of scores obtained for the various categories or a
particular variable.
There are four types of distributions:
1. Frequency distribution
2. Percentage distribution
3. Cumulative distribution
4. Statistical distributions
Frequency distribution :
? In social science research, frequency distribution is very common. It
presents the frequency of occurrences of certain categories. This
distribution appears in two forms:
? Ungrouped: Here, the scores are not collapsed into categories, e.g.,
distribution of ages of the students of a BJ (MC) class, each age value
(e.g., 18, 19, 20, and so on) will be presented separately in the
distribution.
Grouped: Here, the scores are collapsed into categories, so that 2 or 3
scores are presented together as a group. For example, in the above
age distribution groups like 18-20, 21-22 etc., can be formed)
Percentage distribution :
It is also possible to give frequencies not in absolute numbers but in
percentages.
For instance instead of saying 200 respondents of total 2000 had a
monthly income of less than Rs. 500, we can say 10% of the
respondents have a monthly income of less than Rs. 500.
Cumulative distribution :
?
It tells how often the value of the random variable is less than or
equal to a particular reference value.
Statistical data distribution :
? In this type of data distribution, some measure of average is found
out of a sample of respondents.
? Several kind of averages are available (mean, median, mode) and the
researcher must decide which is most suitable to his purpose.
? Once the average has been calculated, the question arises: how
representative a figure it is, i.e., how closely the answers are bunched
around it.
? Are most of them very close to it or is there a wide range of
variation?
Tabulation of data :
After editing, which ensures that the information on the schedule is
accurate and categorized in a suitable form, the data are put together
in some kinds of tables and may also undergo some other forms of
statistical analysis.
? Table can be prepared manually and/or by computers.
? For a small study of 100 to 200 persons, there may be little point in
tabulating by computer since this necessitates putting the data on
punched cards.
? But for a survey analysis involving a large number of respondents and
requiring cross tabulation involving more than two variables, hand
tabulation will be inappropriate and time consuming.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
Importance of Research Report Writing
? Communicates the information
? Helps in evaluation
? Facilitates measuring performance
? Predicts future trends
Presentation ? Essential Characteristics
? Objectives :
? Preparation
? First impression
? Facial expression
? Visual aids
? Audience involvements
? Effective conclusion
Elements of Presentation
? Presenter
? Specific content with a definite objective
? Why who where when what and how
? Audience
? Who
? Why
? Their background
? How many
Factors affecting Presentation
? Audience analysis
? Personal appearance
? Opening and closing of presentation
? Language
? Body language
? Use of visuals
? Organization of presentation
? Voice
? Answering the questions
Processing of data--Editing, Coding, Classification
and tabulation
? After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into
meaningful statement; includes
? Data processing, Data analysis, and Data interpretation and
presentation.
? Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations
necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of
manipulation) could be manual or electronic.
? It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding,
computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
Editing data :
? Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity.
Example: Data collected through questionnaire and schedules may
have answers which may not be ticked at proper places, or some
questions may be left unanswered.
Sometimes information may be given in a form which needs
reconstruction in a category designed for analysis, e.g., converting
daily/monthly income in annual income and so on.
The researcher has to take a decision as to how to edit it.
? Editing also needs that data are relevant and appropriate and errors
are modified.
? Occasionally, the investigator makes a mistake and records and
impossible answer. ?How much red chilies do you use in a month?.
The answer is written as ?4 kilos?. Can a family of three members use
four kilo chilies in a month? The correct answer could be ?0.4 kilo?.
Coding of data :
? Coding is translating answers into numerical values or assigning
numbers to the various categories of a variable to be used in data
analysis.
? Coding is done by using a code book, code sheet, and a computer
card.
? Coding is done on the basis of the instructions given in the codebook.
The code book gives a numerical code for each variable.
Data classification/distribution :
? Sarantakos (1998: 343) defines distribution of data as a form of
classification of scores obtained for the various categories or a
particular variable.
There are four types of distributions:
1. Frequency distribution
2. Percentage distribution
3. Cumulative distribution
4. Statistical distributions
Frequency distribution :
? In social science research, frequency distribution is very common. It
presents the frequency of occurrences of certain categories. This
distribution appears in two forms:
? Ungrouped: Here, the scores are not collapsed into categories, e.g.,
distribution of ages of the students of a BJ (MC) class, each age value
(e.g., 18, 19, 20, and so on) will be presented separately in the
distribution.
Grouped: Here, the scores are collapsed into categories, so that 2 or 3
scores are presented together as a group. For example, in the above
age distribution groups like 18-20, 21-22 etc., can be formed)
Percentage distribution :
It is also possible to give frequencies not in absolute numbers but in
percentages.
For instance instead of saying 200 respondents of total 2000 had a
monthly income of less than Rs. 500, we can say 10% of the
respondents have a monthly income of less than Rs. 500.
Cumulative distribution :
?
It tells how often the value of the random variable is less than or
equal to a particular reference value.
Statistical data distribution :
? In this type of data distribution, some measure of average is found
out of a sample of respondents.
? Several kind of averages are available (mean, median, mode) and the
researcher must decide which is most suitable to his purpose.
? Once the average has been calculated, the question arises: how
representative a figure it is, i.e., how closely the answers are bunched
around it.
? Are most of them very close to it or is there a wide range of
variation?
Tabulation of data :
After editing, which ensures that the information on the schedule is
accurate and categorized in a suitable form, the data are put together
in some kinds of tables and may also undergo some other forms of
statistical analysis.
? Table can be prepared manually and/or by computers.
? For a small study of 100 to 200 persons, there may be little point in
tabulating by computer since this necessitates putting the data on
punched cards.
? But for a survey analysis involving a large number of respondents and
requiring cross tabulation involving more than two variables, hand
tabulation will be inappropriate and time consuming.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
Importance of Research Report Writing
? Communicates the information
? Helps in evaluation
? Facilitates measuring performance
? Predicts future trends
Presentation ? Essential Characteristics
? Objectives :
? Preparation
? First impression
? Facial expression
? Visual aids
? Audience involvements
? Effective conclusion
Elements of Presentation
? Presenter
? Specific content with a definite objective
? Why who where when what and how
? Audience
? Who
? Why
? Their background
? How many
Factors affecting Presentation
? Audience analysis
? Personal appearance
? Opening and closing of presentation
? Language
? Body language
? Use of visuals
? Organization of presentation
? Voice
? Answering the questions
Processing of data--Editing, Coding, Classification
and tabulation
? After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into
meaningful statement; includes
? Data processing, Data analysis, and Data interpretation and
presentation.
? Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations
necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of
manipulation) could be manual or electronic.
? It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding,
computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
Editing data :
? Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity.
Example: Data collected through questionnaire and schedules may
have answers which may not be ticked at proper places, or some
questions may be left unanswered.
Sometimes information may be given in a form which needs
reconstruction in a category designed for analysis, e.g., converting
daily/monthly income in annual income and so on.
The researcher has to take a decision as to how to edit it.
? Editing also needs that data are relevant and appropriate and errors
are modified.
? Occasionally, the investigator makes a mistake and records and
impossible answer. ?How much red chilies do you use in a month?.
The answer is written as ?4 kilos?. Can a family of three members use
four kilo chilies in a month? The correct answer could be ?0.4 kilo?.
Coding of data :
? Coding is translating answers into numerical values or assigning
numbers to the various categories of a variable to be used in data
analysis.
? Coding is done by using a code book, code sheet, and a computer
card.
? Coding is done on the basis of the instructions given in the codebook.
The code book gives a numerical code for each variable.
Data classification/distribution :
? Sarantakos (1998: 343) defines distribution of data as a form of
classification of scores obtained for the various categories or a
particular variable.
There are four types of distributions:
1. Frequency distribution
2. Percentage distribution
3. Cumulative distribution
4. Statistical distributions
Frequency distribution :
? In social science research, frequency distribution is very common. It
presents the frequency of occurrences of certain categories. This
distribution appears in two forms:
? Ungrouped: Here, the scores are not collapsed into categories, e.g.,
distribution of ages of the students of a BJ (MC) class, each age value
(e.g., 18, 19, 20, and so on) will be presented separately in the
distribution.
Grouped: Here, the scores are collapsed into categories, so that 2 or 3
scores are presented together as a group. For example, in the above
age distribution groups like 18-20, 21-22 etc., can be formed)
Percentage distribution :
It is also possible to give frequencies not in absolute numbers but in
percentages.
For instance instead of saying 200 respondents of total 2000 had a
monthly income of less than Rs. 500, we can say 10% of the
respondents have a monthly income of less than Rs. 500.
Cumulative distribution :
?
It tells how often the value of the random variable is less than or
equal to a particular reference value.
Statistical data distribution :
? In this type of data distribution, some measure of average is found
out of a sample of respondents.
? Several kind of averages are available (mean, median, mode) and the
researcher must decide which is most suitable to his purpose.
? Once the average has been calculated, the question arises: how
representative a figure it is, i.e., how closely the answers are bunched
around it.
? Are most of them very close to it or is there a wide range of
variation?
Tabulation of data :
After editing, which ensures that the information on the schedule is
accurate and categorized in a suitable form, the data are put together
in some kinds of tables and may also undergo some other forms of
statistical analysis.
? Table can be prepared manually and/or by computers.
? For a small study of 100 to 200 persons, there may be little point in
tabulating by computer since this necessitates putting the data on
punched cards.
? But for a survey analysis involving a large number of respondents and
requiring cross tabulation involving more than two variables, hand
tabulation will be inappropriate and time consuming.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
Importance of Research Report Writing
? Communicates the information
? Helps in evaluation
? Facilitates measuring performance
? Predicts future trends
Presentation ? Essential Characteristics
? Objectives :
? Preparation
? First impression
? Facial expression
? Visual aids
? Audience involvements
? Effective conclusion
Elements of Presentation
? Presenter
? Specific content with a definite objective
? Why who where when what and how
? Audience
? Who
? Why
? Their background
? How many
Factors affecting Presentation
? Audience analysis
? Personal appearance
? Opening and closing of presentation
? Language
? Body language
? Use of visuals
? Organization of presentation
? Voice
? Answering the questions
Processing of data--Editing, Coding, Classification
and tabulation
? After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into
meaningful statement; includes
? Data processing, Data analysis, and Data interpretation and
presentation.
? Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations
necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of
manipulation) could be manual or electronic.
? It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding,
computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
Editing data :
? Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity.
Example: Data collected through questionnaire and schedules may
have answers which may not be ticked at proper places, or some
questions may be left unanswered.
Sometimes information may be given in a form which needs
reconstruction in a category designed for analysis, e.g., converting
daily/monthly income in annual income and so on.
The researcher has to take a decision as to how to edit it.
? Editing also needs that data are relevant and appropriate and errors
are modified.
? Occasionally, the investigator makes a mistake and records and
impossible answer. ?How much red chilies do you use in a month?.
The answer is written as ?4 kilos?. Can a family of three members use
four kilo chilies in a month? The correct answer could be ?0.4 kilo?.
Coding of data :
? Coding is translating answers into numerical values or assigning
numbers to the various categories of a variable to be used in data
analysis.
? Coding is done by using a code book, code sheet, and a computer
card.
? Coding is done on the basis of the instructions given in the codebook.
The code book gives a numerical code for each variable.
Data classification/distribution :
? Sarantakos (1998: 343) defines distribution of data as a form of
classification of scores obtained for the various categories or a
particular variable.
There are four types of distributions:
1. Frequency distribution
2. Percentage distribution
3. Cumulative distribution
4. Statistical distributions
Frequency distribution :
? In social science research, frequency distribution is very common. It
presents the frequency of occurrences of certain categories. This
distribution appears in two forms:
? Ungrouped: Here, the scores are not collapsed into categories, e.g.,
distribution of ages of the students of a BJ (MC) class, each age value
(e.g., 18, 19, 20, and so on) will be presented separately in the
distribution.
Grouped: Here, the scores are collapsed into categories, so that 2 or 3
scores are presented together as a group. For example, in the above
age distribution groups like 18-20, 21-22 etc., can be formed)
Percentage distribution :
It is also possible to give frequencies not in absolute numbers but in
percentages.
For instance instead of saying 200 respondents of total 2000 had a
monthly income of less than Rs. 500, we can say 10% of the
respondents have a monthly income of less than Rs. 500.
Cumulative distribution :
?
It tells how often the value of the random variable is less than or
equal to a particular reference value.
Statistical data distribution :
? In this type of data distribution, some measure of average is found
out of a sample of respondents.
? Several kind of averages are available (mean, median, mode) and the
researcher must decide which is most suitable to his purpose.
? Once the average has been calculated, the question arises: how
representative a figure it is, i.e., how closely the answers are bunched
around it.
? Are most of them very close to it or is there a wide range of
variation?
Tabulation of data :
After editing, which ensures that the information on the schedule is
accurate and categorized in a suitable form, the data are put together
in some kinds of tables and may also undergo some other forms of
statistical analysis.
? Table can be prepared manually and/or by computers.
? For a small study of 100 to 200 persons, there may be little point in
tabulating by computer since this necessitates putting the data on
punched cards.
? But for a survey analysis involving a large number of respondents and
requiring cross tabulation involving more than two variables, hand
tabulation will be inappropriate and time consuming.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
FirstRanker.com - FirstRanker's Choice
Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
Importance of Research Report Writing
? Communicates the information
? Helps in evaluation
? Facilitates measuring performance
? Predicts future trends
Presentation ? Essential Characteristics
? Objectives :
? Preparation
? First impression
? Facial expression
? Visual aids
? Audience involvements
? Effective conclusion
Elements of Presentation
? Presenter
? Specific content with a definite objective
? Why who where when what and how
? Audience
? Who
? Why
? Their background
? How many
Factors affecting Presentation
? Audience analysis
? Personal appearance
? Opening and closing of presentation
? Language
? Body language
? Use of visuals
? Organization of presentation
? Voice
? Answering the questions
Processing of data--Editing, Coding, Classification
and tabulation
? After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into
meaningful statement; includes
? Data processing, Data analysis, and Data interpretation and
presentation.
? Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations
necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of
manipulation) could be manual or electronic.
? It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding,
computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
Editing data :
? Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity.
Example: Data collected through questionnaire and schedules may
have answers which may not be ticked at proper places, or some
questions may be left unanswered.
Sometimes information may be given in a form which needs
reconstruction in a category designed for analysis, e.g., converting
daily/monthly income in annual income and so on.
The researcher has to take a decision as to how to edit it.
? Editing also needs that data are relevant and appropriate and errors
are modified.
? Occasionally, the investigator makes a mistake and records and
impossible answer. ?How much red chilies do you use in a month?.
The answer is written as ?4 kilos?. Can a family of three members use
four kilo chilies in a month? The correct answer could be ?0.4 kilo?.
Coding of data :
? Coding is translating answers into numerical values or assigning
numbers to the various categories of a variable to be used in data
analysis.
? Coding is done by using a code book, code sheet, and a computer
card.
? Coding is done on the basis of the instructions given in the codebook.
The code book gives a numerical code for each variable.
Data classification/distribution :
? Sarantakos (1998: 343) defines distribution of data as a form of
classification of scores obtained for the various categories or a
particular variable.
There are four types of distributions:
1. Frequency distribution
2. Percentage distribution
3. Cumulative distribution
4. Statistical distributions
Frequency distribution :
? In social science research, frequency distribution is very common. It
presents the frequency of occurrences of certain categories. This
distribution appears in two forms:
? Ungrouped: Here, the scores are not collapsed into categories, e.g.,
distribution of ages of the students of a BJ (MC) class, each age value
(e.g., 18, 19, 20, and so on) will be presented separately in the
distribution.
Grouped: Here, the scores are collapsed into categories, so that 2 or 3
scores are presented together as a group. For example, in the above
age distribution groups like 18-20, 21-22 etc., can be formed)
Percentage distribution :
It is also possible to give frequencies not in absolute numbers but in
percentages.
For instance instead of saying 200 respondents of total 2000 had a
monthly income of less than Rs. 500, we can say 10% of the
respondents have a monthly income of less than Rs. 500.
Cumulative distribution :
?
It tells how often the value of the random variable is less than or
equal to a particular reference value.
Statistical data distribution :
? In this type of data distribution, some measure of average is found
out of a sample of respondents.
? Several kind of averages are available (mean, median, mode) and the
researcher must decide which is most suitable to his purpose.
? Once the average has been calculated, the question arises: how
representative a figure it is, i.e., how closely the answers are bunched
around it.
? Are most of them very close to it or is there a wide range of
variation?
Tabulation of data :
After editing, which ensures that the information on the schedule is
accurate and categorized in a suitable form, the data are put together
in some kinds of tables and may also undergo some other forms of
statistical analysis.
? Table can be prepared manually and/or by computers.
? For a small study of 100 to 200 persons, there may be little point in
tabulating by computer since this necessitates putting the data on
punched cards.
? But for a survey analysis involving a large number of respondents and
requiring cross tabulation involving more than two variables, hand
tabulation will be inappropriate and time consuming.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
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Module 6
Data Analysis & Report Writing
? After collection of data the next step is to processing it for analysis
and interpretation.
? There are two parts in processing data
? Data Analysis
? Interpretation of data
Steps in processing of data
? Preparing raw data
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
? Summarising the data
? Usage of statistical data
1 Preparing raw data
? The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate
? Scattered information
? This can be organised through
? Editing
? Coding
? Tabulation
2.Editing
? The purpose of editing is to eliminate errors and confusions.
? It involves inspection & correction of each questionnaire.
? The main role of editing is to identify ambiguities & errors in
response.
? The editing is the activity of inspecting, correcting & modifying the
correct data
2.Editing
? This can be done in two ways
? Field editing
? Office editing
2.Editing ? Field Editing
? It should be done when the study is still under progress.(on field)
? This is to make sure that proper procedure is followed in selecting the
respondents, interview them and record their responses.
? Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while
doing field editing.
? The reason to field editing is
? Inappropriate respondents
? Incomplete interviews
? Improper understanding
? Lack of consistency -
? Legibility ? clear on same spot
? Fictitious interview- cheating by interviewer
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection
process has been completed.
? Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the
wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c.
? As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the final
results.
? It should be done after the collection of the data.
? This can be done by interviewer, or supervisor
? Office editing need more experts who understands the mind of
respondents.
2.Editing ? Office Editing
? Eg: I don?t drink coffee ,
? My favourite brand is BRU
? It is inconsistent
? 1.was the respondent lying?
? 2. did the interviewer record wrongly?
EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFUL CONSIDERATIONS:
? Editor must be familiar with the interviewer?s mind set, objectives and everything related to
the study.
? Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.
? They should initial all answers or changes they make to the data.
? The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.
3. Coding
? It refers to transforming edited questionnaires into a form that is
ready for analysis.
? It involves assigning numbers or other symbols to answers.
? Guidelines
? Establishment of appropriate category
? Internal ?X external -Y
? Mutually exclusive
? Student , professional, sales, manager
4. Tabulation
? It refers to counting the numbers of cases that fall into various
categories.
? The results are summarized in the form of statical tables. The raw
data is divided into groups and sub-groups.
? The counting and placing of data in a particular group and sub-group
are done.
? The tabulation involves
? Sorting and counting
? Summarising the data
4. Tabulation ? summarising data
Income Tally marks Frequencies
1000 IIII 5
2000 IIII IIII 10
3000 IIII IIII III 13
4. Tabulation ? Types
1.Simple or one way table :
the multiple choice questions which allow only one answer may use
one-way tabulation or univariate.
the questions are pre-determined and consist of counting the number
of responses falling into a particular category and calculate the
percentage.
There may be two types of univariate tabulation
1. Questions with only one response
2. Multiple response to question
4. Tabulation ? Types
1. Questions with only one response
No of children Family %
0 10 10
1 20 20
2 30 30
3 40 40
100 100
Table No 1
Study of number of children in a family
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Questions with multiple response
Attributes No of respondents
Body 15
Design 20
Colour 25
Mileage 40
Safelty 20
Table No 1
Choice of an automobile
What you like about your Car
4. Tabulation ? Types
2. Cross tabulation or two-way table :
This is also known as Bivariate Tabulation.
The data may include two or more variables.
Income per
month
No of children per family No of families
< 1000 73
1001-2000 91
2001-3000
0 1 2 3 4 5 More
than 5
5 0 8 9 11 15 25
10 5 8 10 13 18 27
Eg : popularity of health drink among families having different incomes.
Suppose 500 families are contracted and data collected is as follows.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
Report Writing and Presentation of Results
?Research reports are detailed and
accurate accounts of the conduct of
disciplined studies accomplished to
solve problems or to reveal new
knowledge.? (Busha and Harter,
1988).
1. Meaning of Research Report:
? Research report writing is the oral or written presentation of
the evidence and the findings in such detail and form as to be
readily understood and accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions..
? According to American Marketing Society, Its purpose is to
Convey to interested persons the whole result of study in
sufficient detail and to enable each reader to comprehend the
data and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions.
It is covers, Disseminations, Presents the conclusions for the
information and knowledge to others, to check the validity of
the generalizations, to encourage others to carry on research
on the same or allied problem.
Structure of Research Report
? Generally, a research report, whether it is called dissertation or thesis
? 1) The Priliminary i.e. preface pages
? 2) The text of the report / Main body of the report
? 3) The Reference material.
PRELIMINARY SECTION
? Title page
? Certification
? Candidate Declaration
? Preface including Acknowledgements
? Table of Content
? List of Tables
? List of figures
? List of Abbreviation
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose and objective of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 3 ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test
4.3 Inferential analysis
4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship
? Correlation analysis
? Hypothesis testing
4.4 Conclusion
CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Recapitulation of major findings
5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as fallows
? 1. Bibliography (APA Style or ..)
? 2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
? 3. Glossary of terms (if any)
? 4. Index (if any)
Types Of reports
? Technical Report
? Popular Report
Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
? the methods employed,
? assumptions made in the course of the study,
? the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
Popular Report
? The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness.
? The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and
liberal use of charts and diagrams.
? Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
the popular report.
? Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
Characteristics of good report
1) Attractive
2) Clear Topic
3) Balanced Language
4) No repetition of facts
5) Statement of scientific facts
6) Practicability
7)Description of the difficulties and the shortcomings
Importance of Research Report Writing
? Communicates the information
? Helps in evaluation
? Facilitates measuring performance
? Predicts future trends
Presentation ? Essential Characteristics
? Objectives :
? Preparation
? First impression
? Facial expression
? Visual aids
? Audience involvements
? Effective conclusion
Elements of Presentation
? Presenter
? Specific content with a definite objective
? Why who where when what and how
? Audience
? Who
? Why
? Their background
? How many
Factors affecting Presentation
? Audience analysis
? Personal appearance
? Opening and closing of presentation
? Language
? Body language
? Use of visuals
? Organization of presentation
? Voice
? Answering the questions
Processing of data--Editing, Coding, Classification
and tabulation
? After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into
meaningful statement; includes
? Data processing, Data analysis, and Data interpretation and
presentation.
? Data reduction or processing mainly involves various manipulations
necessary for preparing the data for analysis. The process (of
manipulation) could be manual or electronic.
? It involves editing, categorizing the open-ended questions, coding,
computerization and preparation of tables and diagrams.
Editing data :
? Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity.
Example: Data collected through questionnaire and schedules may
have answers which may not be ticked at proper places, or some
questions may be left unanswered.
Sometimes information may be given in a form which needs
reconstruction in a category designed for analysis, e.g., converting
daily/monthly income in annual income and so on.
The researcher has to take a decision as to how to edit it.
? Editing also needs that data are relevant and appropriate and errors
are modified.
? Occasionally, the investigator makes a mistake and records and
impossible answer. ?How much red chilies do you use in a month?.
The answer is written as ?4 kilos?. Can a family of three members use
four kilo chilies in a month? The correct answer could be ?0.4 kilo?.
Coding of data :
? Coding is translating answers into numerical values or assigning
numbers to the various categories of a variable to be used in data
analysis.
? Coding is done by using a code book, code sheet, and a computer
card.
? Coding is done on the basis of the instructions given in the codebook.
The code book gives a numerical code for each variable.
Data classification/distribution :
? Sarantakos (1998: 343) defines distribution of data as a form of
classification of scores obtained for the various categories or a
particular variable.
There are four types of distributions:
1. Frequency distribution
2. Percentage distribution
3. Cumulative distribution
4. Statistical distributions
Frequency distribution :
? In social science research, frequency distribution is very common. It
presents the frequency of occurrences of certain categories. This
distribution appears in two forms:
? Ungrouped: Here, the scores are not collapsed into categories, e.g.,
distribution of ages of the students of a BJ (MC) class, each age value
(e.g., 18, 19, 20, and so on) will be presented separately in the
distribution.
Grouped: Here, the scores are collapsed into categories, so that 2 or 3
scores are presented together as a group. For example, in the above
age distribution groups like 18-20, 21-22 etc., can be formed)
Percentage distribution :
It is also possible to give frequencies not in absolute numbers but in
percentages.
For instance instead of saying 200 respondents of total 2000 had a
monthly income of less than Rs. 500, we can say 10% of the
respondents have a monthly income of less than Rs. 500.
Cumulative distribution :
?
It tells how often the value of the random variable is less than or
equal to a particular reference value.
Statistical data distribution :
? In this type of data distribution, some measure of average is found
out of a sample of respondents.
? Several kind of averages are available (mean, median, mode) and the
researcher must decide which is most suitable to his purpose.
? Once the average has been calculated, the question arises: how
representative a figure it is, i.e., how closely the answers are bunched
around it.
? Are most of them very close to it or is there a wide range of
variation?
Tabulation of data :
After editing, which ensures that the information on the schedule is
accurate and categorized in a suitable form, the data are put together
in some kinds of tables and may also undergo some other forms of
statistical analysis.
? Table can be prepared manually and/or by computers.
? For a small study of 100 to 200 persons, there may be little point in
tabulating by computer since this necessitates putting the data on
punched cards.
? But for a survey analysis involving a large number of respondents and
requiring cross tabulation involving more than two variables, hand
tabulation will be inappropriate and time consuming.
Data Validation
? Data validation is a process that ensures the delivery of clean and
clear data to the programs, applications and services using it.
? It checks for the integrity and validity of data that is being inputted to
different software and its components.
? Data validation ensures that the data complies with the requirements
and quality benchmarks.
? Data validation is also known as input validation.
Some of the types of data validation include:
1. Code validation
2. Data type validation
3. Data range validation
4. Constraint validation
5. Structured validation
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This post was last modified on 18 February 2020