IMAGING TECHNIQUES
X- RAYS
? Are electromagnetic radiation
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? Have penetrating power less than gamma rays but more than alpha and beta rays? Can pass through human body, Cannot be absorbed completely
? Produced by Coolidge tube when fast moving stream of electrons produced by a cathode(Tungsten
filament) strikes the anode(tungsten/ molybdenum containing copper plate)
? X-rays are most scattered by H+ ions.
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? Causes ionization in 3 ways: Photoelectric effect, Compton effect & Pair production? Contrast can be increased by increasing the current (mA)
? Penetration can be increased by increasing the voltage (mV)
? Machine is kept at 6 feet distance form photographic plate to prevent magnification.
? Optimum distance of target film: 90-100cm
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? Best chest X ray is done at: 120-150 kilovolt peak.? Gunson method: X- ray of soft tissues of neck
? Cyclotron produces Gamma rays
ULTRASOUND (USG)
? Based on piezoelectric effect of crystals made up of lead zirconate titanate.
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? Ian Donald - father of obstetric ultrasound. Also invented the B-mode scanner.? Dr. John Wild and John Reid: invented an A-mode scanner for the detection of ovarian cancer.
? John Wild ("father of medical ultrasound") first used ultrasound to assess the thickness of bowel tissue.
? Contains waves with frequencies>20,000 Hz.
? In medical USG frequencies commonly used are 2-10 MHz
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? Frequencies used:? Trans abdominal ultrasound: 3-5 MHz,
o
Trans-vaginal: 5-7.5MHz,
o
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Breast: 15 MHz,o
Gut wall: 7.5-20 MHz
o
Vessels: 20 MHz
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? Types of image displayo
A ?Mode
one dimensional picture, used only in eye scan
o
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B- Mode-two dimensional picture, commonly used
o
Real time scan
gives moving picture
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oM-Mode
motion display (e.g. in ECHO)
? USG causes delirious effect on small micro-organisms by acoustic cavitation.
? Investigation of choice for obstetric conditions
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DOPPLER? Based on Doppler Effect (change in the perceived frequency of sound emitted by a moving source measures
blood flow). It provides both audio and video signals.
? Types: Continuous waves & Pulsed waves
? In Doppler imaging colour displays direction of blood flow. It is
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Red --- when direction of flow is towards the transducer.Blue --- if flow is away from transducer.
CT- scan or CAT scan
? Invented by God Frey Hounsfield in 1963, awarded Nobel Prize.
? Basic principle of CT is linear attenuation of x-rays.
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? Incident x-rays are linearly attenuated by their interaction with orbital electrons of tissues.
? Measurement of attenuation of emerging / detected beam gives density of intervening tissues and this
density forms basis of signal intensity variation obtained in x-ray tomograms.
? Electron density of tissues in numbered as Hounsfield number (H.N.) or Hounsfield units.
o
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Air have a value of -1000 HUo
Fat of -120 to -200 HU
o
Water ? 0 HU
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oSoft tissue of 20-60 HU
o
Blood of 50-60 HU
o
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Bone of +1000 HU? Two type of contrast agents are used
o
Ionic ? water soluble iodide dyes (e.g. Na- diatrizoate, megliumine, conray, urograffin, angiografin) ?
may cause anaphylaxis
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oNon ionic- Safer but expensive e.g. iohexol (Omnipaque), lopamiro
? Uses of various contrast agents:
Contrast
Procedure
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ContrastProcedure
Dionosil (Tantalum)
Bronchography
Hypaque, sodium
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IVPdiatrizoate
Myodil
DSA, Myelography
Methylene blue
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Lymphangiographylopanoic acid
Oral
Conray 280
Aortography, cerebral
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(Telepaque)cholecystography
angiography
(OCG)
Biligrafin
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IV cholecystographyConray 280/420
HSG
Metrizamide, lohexol
Ventriculography
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Conray 420CT scan, coronary
(Omnipaque)
angiography
Gastrografin (Dionosil)
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OesophagoscopyGadolinium
MRI
? Spiral CT, also known as helical or volumetric-acquisition CT: Technique by which the volume area is
scanned as the patient continuously travels through the scan field, while data is acquired along the spiral
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path.? Advantages:
o
Spiral CT will produce a clearer, more defined image and provides better details.
o
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Spiral CT is 8 to 10 times faster than a traditional CT scanner. This saves time and reduces radiationexposure by eliminating the need for multiple scans.
o
Spiral CT can digitally reconstruct more than one image from a single slice and allows for multiplaner
reformatting (overlapping structure).
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oSpiral CT has the ability to scan an entire region in a single breath hold, averaging about 30 seconds or
less. Shorter scan time allows coordination of peak contrast enhancement, which results in clearer
images and about 1/3 less dye load.
MRI
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? Based on gyromagnetic property of protons (or hydrogen nucleus, H+)? Described first by Bloch & Purchell, applied as human tool by Damadian & Lauterbeur (1972)
? It can be plain MRI or contrast MRI.
? Most common contrast agent used is i.v. Gadolinium.
? Proton density and relaxation time are assessed by radiofrequency pulse and the computer generates a gray
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scale image from this data.? Magnetic field used in the range of 0.15-3 tesla
? MRI spectroscopy provides in vivo characterization of chemical composition and metabolic activity of brain.
? Relaxation time:
o
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T1time taken to return to original axis (T1 images are used to find out normal anatomical details)lt hasgot high soft tissue discrimination (CSF looks black)
o
T2: Time taken by proton to displace. Used to assess pathological processes (fluid looks white).
The induction (transmitter/receiver coil) used in MRI are Maxwell coils.
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? Water (CSF) looks white (hyperintense) on T2.? CSF looks hyperintense on T2 weighted image and hypointense on T1 weighed image.
MRI EVALUATION OF HEMORRHAGES
Biochemical form
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Stage ofTime
T1
T2
haemorrhage
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Oxyhemoglobin inHyperacute
Immediate to
Isointense
Hyperintense
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RBCsfirst few hours
Deoxyhemoglobin in
Acute
Hours to days
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Isointense toHypointense
RBCs
hypointense
Methoxyhemoglobin
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Early subacuteFirst several
hyperintense
Hypointense
in RBCs
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daysExtracellular metHb
Late subacute
Days to
Hyperintense
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Hypointensemonths
Ferritin and
Chronic
Days to infinite
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!so toHypointense
hemosedrin
time
hypointense
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SubstanceT1 weighted
T2 weighted
Water/vitreous/CSF
Black
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Light grey or whiteFat
White
Light grey
Muscle
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GreyGrey
Air
Black
Black
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Fatty bone marrowWhite
Light grey
Brain: white matter
Light grey
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GreyBrain: grey matter
Grey
Very light grey
Common Contraindications to MR Imaging
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? Cardiac pacemaker or permanent pacemaker leads, Internal defibrillatory device? Cochlear prostheses, Bone growth stimulators, Spinal cord stimulators
? Electronic infusion devices
? Intracranial aneurysm clips (some but not all)
? Ocular implants (some) or ocular metallic foreign body
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? McGee stapedectomy piston prosthesis? Duraphase penile implant
? Swan-Ganz catheter
? Magnetic stoma plugs, Magnetic dental implants
? Magnetic sphincters
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? Ferromagnetic IVC filters, coils, stents--safe 6 weeks after implantation? Tattooed eyeliner (contains ferromagnetic material and may irritate eyes)
PET
? PET produces tomographic images.
? A cyclotron is required to generate positron-emitting isotopes that can be made from compounds, such as F,
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C, N and O.? Radiopharmaceuticals for PET imaging: FDG, C methionine and [18] F-methyl tyrosine.
? Disadvantages of PET: limited availability and high cost due to the necessity of a cyclotron
? Positron emitting radio nuclides are used:- O2- informs 02 uptake, CO2 - informs blood flow, 18 FDG --
informs glucose utilization and is most frequently used moiety,
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? Indications:o
To distinguish radiation necrosis from recurrent glioblastoma
o
To evaluate transformation of brain tumor from low grade to high grade
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oTo evaluate the potential for recurrence of meningioma
o
To assess tumor viability and monitor treatment response
o
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For diagnosing occult metastasis & recurrent cancerso
To differentiate benign from malignant pulmonary nodules
o
To evaluate staging, restaging, and response to therapy; local and distant metastasis; and response to
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treatment in patients with breast cancero
For the diagnosis, staging, and restaging of colorectal, esophageal, head and neck, breast and lung
cancers and lymphoma and melanoma.
o
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For restaging of recurrent or residual thyroid cancers, of follicular cell origin,o
In stroke PET is useful to differentiate viable from non -- viable tissue
SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
? Detection of emitted gamma rays by a gamma camera.
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? Requires radiopharmaceuticals that cross the blood?brain barrier.? Radiopharmaceuticals used are133Xe, 123I isopropyl iodoamphetamine (IMP), 99mTc ethyl cysteinate dimer
(ECD) or 99mTc hexamethylpropylene amine oxide (HMPAO).
? Clinical applications include dementia, cerebrovascular disease, epilepsy, encephalitis, head injury, and other
less common disorders that result in abnormal cerebral perfusion.
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? SPECT can also be used to image uptake at neurotransmitter receptors using various radiopharmaceuticalsusually labeled with 123I.
? Many different SPECT radiopharmaceuticals are taken up into intracranial tumours, including 201TI chloride,
99mTc MIBI, 123I-methyl tyrosine and 111 In octreotide.
? Because of the requirement for lead collimation, SPECT has inherently poorer resolution than PET and
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absolute quantitation is not possible.? SPECT is relatively inexpensive and has good patient acceptability.
CT and MRI Imaging Characteristics of Various Tissues:
Tissue
CT Gray Scale
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MRI T1 SignalMRI T2 Signal
Brain
Gray
Gray
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GrayAir
Black
Black
Black
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CSFBlack
Black
White
Fat
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BlackWhite
Black
Calcium
White
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BlackBlack
Bone
Very white
Black
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BlackExtravasated blood
White
White
Black
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InflammationContrast enhancing
Gray, gadolinium enhancing
White
Edema
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Dark grayGray
White
Tumor
Gray or white and contrast
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Gray or white and gadoliniumWhite
enhancing
enhancing
? FLAIR (fluid-attenuated inversion recovery) imaging is a technique that gives a high signal for parenchymal
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lesions and a low signal for CSF.? It is sensitive to calcium and iron within brain tissue, shows early stages of infarction, and accentuates
inflammatory demyelinating lesions.
EFFECTS OF RADIATION
? Maximal permissible radiation dose: The dose of radiation which if received each year for a 50 yrs working
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life time would not be expected to produce any harmful effect.? The LD50/30 (i.e., a dose that causes a 50% mortality rate at 30 days) is approximately 4 Gy[1 Gy=100 rad]
for whole-body exposure without medical support.
? For most of the conditions, a min. dose of about 1000 cGy is required for whole body irradiation.
? Whole- body exposure to doses >9-10 Gy is almost always fatal.
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? In addition to the GI syndrome associated with very large exposures, patients may develop a neurovascularsyndrome; the latter dominates with whole- body doses >20 Gy.
? With medical support, the LO50/30 ranges between 8 and 10 Gy.
? The recommended occupational limit of maternal exposure to radiation from all sources is 500 mill Rads
for entire 40 weeks of gestation
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? 10 days rule advices that any x ray examination involving the abdomen of a women of child bearing ageshould be carried out within 10 days of menstruation.
? Deterministic effects: develop due to cell killing by high dose radiation.
? Stochastic effects: develop due to mutation effect of low dose radiation.
? Fetus is most sensitive to the effects of radiation during 8 ? 15 weeks of gestation.
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? Amount of radiation received from out space = 0.1 rad/year. Additional permissible dose = < 5 rads/ year.? Radiation exposure: CT scan> Bone scan> X ray
? No radiation hazard: MRI & USG.
Latest ICRP recommendations for maximum permissible dose for various groups are:
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? Occupational exposure(radiation workers)50 mSv/year
? Public (in general)
20 mSv/year
? Pregnancy
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40.5 mSv for declared termII.
NORMAL FEATURES
View (Chest- X-ray)
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Structure seenRAO (Right Anterior Oblique)
Rt lung, Lt. atrium, Gall bladder ,Mitral valve
Left Anterior Oblique
Tracheal bifurcation
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Right Posterior ObliqueRight retro cardiac space
Right decubitus view
Right middle lobe of the lung
Lardotic view
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Apex, Lingual lobeReverse lardotic view
Interlobar effusions
View
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Structure seenCald well (Occipito-Frontal)
? Superior orbital fissure ,foramen rotundum & superior margin of
view
? orbit
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? Lamina papyracea, Maxillary sinus, ethmoid sinus, frontal sinusWater (O-M: Occipito mental)
? Maxillary sinus, sphenoid sinus,-frontal sinus
view
? Intra Temporal fossa, zygoma & zygomatic arch
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Basal submentovertical view? Sphenoid, posterior ethmoid , maxillary sinus, Zygoma & zygomatic
arch
? Mandible along with coronoid & condyloid process
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Holman Miller sign (Antral sign): anterior bowing of the posterior wall of the maxillary antrum seen on lateral skullfilms.
SPECIFIC VIEWS IN RADIOLOGY:
Features
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ViewFeatures
View
Supraorbital fissure
Cald well view
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PatellaSkyline view
Recurrent shoulder
Strikers view
Minimal pleural effusion
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Lateral Decubitusdislocation
Sella turcica
Lateral skull view Pneumothorax
PA view in full
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expirationScaphoid
Oblique view
Internal auditory meatus
Periorbital view
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CARDIAC BORDERS
THE BASE OF HEART: forms the posterior surface. It is formed mainly by the left atrium and by small part of right
atrium.
MEDIASTINAL/ HEART BORDER ON X-RAY:
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Right Border: Formed by superior vena cava, Rt atrium, Inferior vena cavaLeft Border: Formed by Aortic arch, Left ventricle, Main pulmonary artery, Left atrial appendages.
? The left heart is formed by the main pulmonary artery and heart (left atrial appendage and left ventricle)
? The knob-like shadow of the aortic arch in superior mediastinum is formed by the posterior part of arch,
which is absent or deformed in coarctation of aorta.
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? A small "nipple" may occasionally be seen projecting laterally from aortic knuckle or knob due to thepresence of left superior intercostal vein and this normal nipple should not be misinterpreted as adenopathy
(aortopulmonary window). Below the aortic knuckle or knob is a concavity, the pulmonary bay, the floor of
which is formed by the main pulmonary artery beyond the pulmonary valve.
? The pulmonary bay may be filled in by PDA.
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? Below the pulmonary bay, the left ventricle forms the left heart border.? Just below pulmonary bay is the left bronchus, below which is the left atrial appendage, not forming a
discrete shadow unless enlarged, and below that is the level of right ventricular infundibulum, azygous vein
lesion on right side and does not contribute to left heart border.
? However, a coronary artery aneurysm can cause abnormal bulging of left heart border.
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RADIOLOGICAL FEATURES OF INTESTINE
Useful differentiating features B/W SI & LI includes Size & distribution of loops
? Dilated small bowel loops are numerous & arranged centrally in the abdomen
? Loops show small radius of curvature & the presence of solid feces is the only reliable sign that the loop is
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large bowel.? The other signs can be misleading.
Features
Small bowel
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Large bowelHaustra
Absent
Present
Valvulae conniventes
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Present in jejunumAbsent
Number of loops
Many
Few
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Distribution of loopsCentral
Peripheral
Diameter of loops
Small
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LargeRadius of curvature of loop
30-50mm
50mm
Solid feces (only reliable sign)
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AbsentMay be +
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III.
SIGNS IN RADIOLOGY
RADIOLOGICAL SIGNS OF THORAX
SIGN/ SPECIFIC FEATURE
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SEEN INMeniscus/moon/air crescent/double arch
Hydatid cyst of lung
sign/combo sign/water lilly/camalotte
sign/serpent sign/ rising sun sign/ empty cyst
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signPopcorn calcification
Hamartoma, Mediastinal nodes of histoplasmosis
Westermark sign, Hapton's hump, Palla sing
Pulmonary thrombo-embolism
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Fleishner lines, Felson's signSail sign, Mulvay wave sign, Notch sign
Thymic enlargement
Comet tail sign
Rounded atelectasis
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Golden S signRight Upper Lobe collapse secondary to a central
Luftsichel sign, Broncholobar sign
m
L a
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efst s
Upper Lobe collapse
Ring around artery sign
Pneumo-mediastinum
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Continuous diaphragm signTubular artery sign, Double bronchial wall
sign
V sign of Naclerio, Spinnaker sail sign
Deep sulcus sign, Visceral pleural line
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PneumothoraxThumb sign
Epiglottitis
Steeple sign
Croup
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Air crescent sign, Monod signAspergilloma
Bulging fissure sign
Klebsiella pneumonia
Batwing sign
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Pulmonary edema on CXRCollar sign, Dependant viscera sign
Diaphragmatic rupture
Feeding vessel sign
Pulmonary septic emboli
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Finger in glove signABPA
Halo sing
Aspergillosis
Head cheese sign
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Subacute hypersensitivity pneumonitisJuxtaphrenic peak sign
Right Upper Lobe atelectasis
Reversed halo sign
Cryptogenic organized pneumonia
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Saber sheath signCOPD
Sandstorm lungs
Alveolar microlithiasis
Signet ring sign
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BronchiectasisSuperior triangle sign
Right Lower Lobe atelectasis
Split pleura sign
Empyema
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Tree in bud sign on HRCTEndo bronchial spread in TB
CHEST X-RAY OF ECHINOCOCCUS
? Oval mass
? Meniscus/ moon/ crescent / double arch sign
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? Rising sun sign/empty cyst sign? Water Lilly / camalotte sign
? Serpent sign/ Cumbo sign
Superior rib notching
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Inferior rib notching? Poliomyelitis, Osteogenesis imperfect
? Coarctation of Aorta [M/C cause]
? Restrictive lung disease
? Pulmonary- oligemia/ A-V malformation
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? Neurofibromatosis, Marfan's syndrome? Aortic thrombosis
? Connective tissue disease- RA, SLE,
? Subclavian obstruction
Scleroderma
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? Tausig Blalock operation? Sjogren's syndrome, Hyper parathyroidism
RADIOLOGICAL SIGNS OF CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Radiological feature
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DisorderFour bump heart
MS/ MR due to left atrial appendage
enlargement
Glassy heart on ECHO
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AmyloidosisDouble cardiac shadow, Double density sign, Bedford
Left atrial enlargement
sign
Dock's sign, E-sign , figure of 3 sign, reversed E sign,
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Coarctation of aortainverted 3 sign
Double aortic knuckle
Aortic dissection
Jug handle appearance
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Primary pulmonary hypertensionMaladie de roger effect
Small VSD
Hilar dance (pulmonary plethora)
ASD
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Box shaped heartTricuspid Atresia
Water bottle/ flask shaped heart/ leather bottle/pear
Pericardial effusion
shaped/money bag heart/ purse like heart/ Epicardial
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fat pad signCoeur en sabot i.e. boot shaped heart
Tetralogy of Fallot
Spade like deformity on ECHO
Atypical HOCM
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Egg in cup appearance, square root signConstrictive pericarditis
Inverted moustache sign
Mitral stenosis
Egg on side appearance ,Egg shaped heart, Egg in string
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D- Transposition of great arteries (D- TGA)Convex left heart border
L-TGA
Ground glass ventricular septum
Hypertrophic Obstructive Cardiomyopathy
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(HOCM)Straight left upper cardiac border
Ebstein's Anomaly
Concave main pulmonary segment & right aortic arch
Persistent Truncus arteriosus
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Snowman sign, Figure of 8 sign, Cottage loaf signTotal Anomalous Pulmonary Venous
Connection (TAPVC) -- supra cardiac variety
Goose neck sign
Atrioventricular septal defect
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Tubular heartEmphysema
Stag antler / hands up sign
CCF
Schimitar sign / Turkish sword appearance
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Congenital venolobar syndromeSitting duck heart
Persistent truncus arteriosus
Yin yang sign
Pseudo aneurysms
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Small heart signTension pneumopericardium
High attenuating crescent sign
Impending rupture of abdominal aortic
aneurysm
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Draped aorta signContained rupture of abdominal aortic
aneurysm
RADIOLOGICAL SIGNS OF ALIMENTARY TRACT
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SignDisease
Single Air Bubble sign
Pyloric stenosis/ obstruction
Double bubble sign
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Ladd band / Malrotation, Annularpancreas
Duodenal atresia/ stenosis/ web/
duplication cyst
Multiple air fluid level
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Ileal obstructionTriple bubble sign
Jejunal obstruction
String of beads sign, Stepladder appearance, Concertina effect,
Small bowel obstruction
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Candy-cone appearance, Snake head appearance on barium studyGas under diaphragm, Liver edge sign, Falciform ligament sign, Gall
Pneumoperitoneum
bladder sign, Diaphragmatic muscle slip sign/ leaping dolphin sign,
Luscent liver sign, Anterosuperior bubble sign
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Doge's cap sign, Riglers double wall sign, American footballs sign,Cupola's sign, Triangle sign, Visible transverse mesocolon sign,
Visible small bowel mesentery sign, Pneumo-omentum/ pneumo-
mesocolon, Urachus sign, Medial/ lateral umbilical fold sign,
Inverted V sign, pneumoscrotum
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Birds beak appearance (barium meal), hurst phenomenonOesophageal Achalasia
Cork screw appearance (barium meal)
Diffuse oesophageal spasm
Beak sign, Double track or Tram track sign, Shoulder sign, string
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Hypertrophic pyloric stenosissign, diamond sign, Twinning recess, pyloric test, test sign,
mushroom sign, caterpillar sign
Seagull / Mercedes Benz/ Crow feet sign
Radiolucent gall stone with gas
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Multiple gas fluid level (step ladder pattern)Intestinal obstruction
Cigar bundle appearance on X- ray, Winding highway railway tract
Round worm
on USG & Medusa Head colonies on CT scan
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Whirlpool sign in USG, corkscrew signMidgut volvulus
Coffee Bean sign, Bent tyre tube sign, Liver overlap sign, Pelvis
Sigmoid volvulus
overlap sign, Left flank overlap sign
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Shark mouth appearanceIleocecal valve
Lead pipe appearance/ Stippled appearance/ Pipe stem appearance Ulcerative colitis
String of Kantor, Bull's eye or Target lesion
Crohn's disease (regional Ileitis)
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Thumb printing signIschemic colitis (Also in amoebic &
ulcerative colitis)
Saw tooth appearance (on barium enema)/ Champagne glass sign,
Diverticulitis of colon
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Bowlers hat signApple core lesion & Napkins sign (on barium enema)
Ca-colon
Pincer sign, Claw sign, Coiled spring appearance, target sign,
Intussusception
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Meniscus sign, crescent in Doughnut Sign, Pseudokidney sign,Sandwich sign, Hay fork sign
Hamburger sign, Signa de dance, Dance sign
Bubbly / frothy/ soap bubble/apple sauce appearance
Meconium ileus
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Pulled up caecum/ obtuse ileo caecal angle/ filling defect/Ileocaecal TB
incompetent ileocaecal valve Fleishner sign, Inverted umbrella
defect, Steirlin sign, Amputed cecum, Goose neck deformity
Hamptons line
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Benign gastic ulcerCarmens meniscus sign;Kirkland complex
Malignant gastric ulcer
Apple peal appearance
Ileal atresia
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Moulage signCoeliac sprue
Arrowhead sign, Rovsings sign
Acute appendicitis
Straight line sign
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HCCComet-tail sign on USG
Adenomyomatosis of gall bladder
Central dot sign
Caroli's disease
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Triangular cord signBiliary Atresia
Shaggy esophagus
Esophageal candidiasis
Accordion sign
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Pseudomembranous colitisChampagne sign
Emphysematous cholecystitis
Cluster of grapes sign
Pneumatoses cystoides coli
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Corkscrew signMidgut volvulus
Dependant viscera sign
Diaphragmatic rupture
Fat ring sign
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Mesenteric panniculitisMolar tooth sign
Extraperitoneal bladder rupture
Ribbon bowel appearance on barium
Graft versus host disease
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Spokewheel signSmall bowel volvulus
Straight line sign on PET
Peritoneal carcinomatosis
RADIOLOGICAL SIGNS IN PANCREATIC DISORDERS
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? In chronic pancreatitis, cholangio pancreatography (ERCP) is the most sensitive imaging modality.? The positive findings are: Chain of lakes appearance, String of pearls appearance, Beading appearance.
? On x-ray numerous irregular calcification are pathognomic of chronic pancreatitis.
? String of beads sign -small bowel obstruction.
? Double bubble sign - in annular pancreas.
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DiseasePathognomic sign
Chronic pancreatitis
Beaded appearance, Sting of pearls appearance, Rat tail stricture of CBD,
(On ERCP)
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Chain of lakes appearanceAcute Pancreatitis
Renal Halo sign, Gasless abdomen, Colon cut off ,Sentinel loop
(Abdominal X-Ray)
Carcinoma pancreas
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Double contour of medial border of duodenal C loop, Double ductsign(ERCP) dilated/ widened Duodenal-C loop, mucosal irregularity,
Rose
thorning of medial wall of 2nd part of duodenum, Scramble Egg
appearance, Inverted/ Reverse-3 sign of frost berg
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BLUNT TRAUMA? Spleen is the most commonly injured organ in blunt injury abdomen.
? Contrast- enhanced CT is the investigation of choice for detecting splenic injuries.
? Kehr sign (after elevating foot end, referred pain over left shoulder d/t irritation of under surface of
diaphragm by blood) is seen in splenic ruptures.
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? On X- ray:Fracture of left lower ribs,
Obliteration of splenic & psoas shadows
Elevation of left diaphragm
Indentation of stomach & presence of free fluid between coils of intestine.
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PHEOCHROMOCYTOMA
? Arises from para ganglion cells of ANS.
? Most common site of origin ?adrenal medulla
? Most common extra-adrenal site: organ of zuckerkandl
? Investigation of choice for: is CT scan followed by MRI.
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? IOC for locally recurrent, metastatic, Ectopic & Extra ? adrenal pheochromocytoma is MIBG scan (Using I123or I131)
? Sensitivity: MIBG > MRI > CT > USG
RADIOLOGICAL SIGNS OF EXCRETORY SYSTEM
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Radiological featureDisease
Rim/ crescent sign & Soap bubble appearance
Hydronephrosis
Flower vase appearance of ureter
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Horse shoe kidneyYo yo phenomenon
Duplex ureter of kidney
Putty kidney, autonephrectomy, moth eaten appearance,
TB kidney
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Kerr's kink, irregular cavity, phantom calyxCorkscrew ureter, beaded ureter, pipe stem ureter
TB ureter
Golf hole ureter
TB bladder
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Drooping flower appearanceEctopic ureter
Cobra head appearance/ adder head/ Spring onion
Ureterocele
appearance
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Egg in cup appearance, Signet ring sign on IVUAnalgesic nephropathy causing papillary
Lobster claw sign on IVU, Ball on tee sign on IVU
necrosis
Thimble bladder
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Tubercular/ chronic cystitisFir tree appearance/pine cone bladder or christmas tree
Neurogenic bladder
bladder
Sandy patches
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Schistosomiasis of bladderChalice/ Bergman sign
Ureteric dilatation distal to neoplasm
Fish hook bladder
BPH
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B/L spider leg appearance, Swiss- cheese/ blackAutosomal dominant Polycystic kidney
nephrogram,
Sun burst nephrogram/ Patchy chaotic nephrogram
Autosomal recessive Polycystic kidney
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Renal fascia signAcute renal artery occlusion
Bunch of flowers appearance, Paintbrush appearance
Medullary sponge kidney
Edling sign
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PseudoureterocleWind in the sail appearance, Keyhole appearance
Posterior urethral valves
Sunburst appearance, Bladder in bladder appearance,
Extra peritoneal bladder rupture
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Molar tooth signNubbin sign
Reflux nephropathy involving the lower
pole of a duplicated collecting system
Goblet sign, Bergmans coiled catheter sign
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Ureteral transitional cell carcinoma? Pseudo ureterocele: malignant stricture of distal ureter.
INVESTIGATIONS IN RENAL TUBERCULOSIS
PLAIN FILM
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? Focus on calcification, which is seen in 25-45%, at various stages of disease.
o
triangular in papillary necrosis
o
focal or amorphous : putty kidney (endstage)
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? Fluoroscopy - IVP? Traditional plain film IVP is quite sensitive to renal tuberculosis with only 10% of affected patients having
normal imaging. Features include:
o
Parenchymal scars 50%
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oMoth eaten calyces: early finding
o
Irregular caliectasis
o
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Phantom calyxo
Hydronephrosis
? Other lower urinary tract signs include:
o
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Kerr kink 3o
Saw-tooth ureter
o
Pipe-stem ureter
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oBeaded or corkscrew ureter
o
Thimble bladder
ULTRASOUND
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Sonographic appearances are non-specific and variable, depending on the stage of disease.Early
? Normal kidney or small focal cortical lesions with poorly defined border + / - calcification.
? Progressive papillary destruction with echogenic masses near calyces.
? Distorted renal parenchyma.
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? Irregular hypoechoic masses connecting to collecting system; no renal pelvic dilatation.? Mucosal thickening + / - ureteric and bladder involvement.
? Small, fibrotic thick-walled bladder.
? Echogenic foci or calcification (granulomas) in bladder wall near ureteric orifice.
? Localised or generalised pyonephrosis.
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End stage? Small, shrunken kidney, "paper-thin" cortex and dense dystrophic calcification in collecting system.
? May resemble chronic renal disease.
Ultrasound is less sensitive than CT in detection of:
? Calyceal, pelvic or ureteral abnormalities.
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? lsoechoic parenchymal masses.? Small calcifications.
? Small cavities that communicate with collecting system.
CT
? CT is the most sensitive modality for visualizing renal calcifications.
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? CT IVP is more sensitive at identifying all manifestations of renal tuberculosis.Early
? Papillary necrosis (single or multiple) resulting in uneven caliectasis
? Progressive multifocal strictures can affect any part of the collecting system
? Generalised or focal hydro nephrosis.
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? Mural thickening and enhancement? Poorly enhancing renal parenchyma, either due to direct involvement or due to hydronephrosis
End stage
? Progressive hydronephrosis results in very thin parenchyma, mimicking multiple thin walled cysts.
? Amorphous dystrophic calcification eventually involves the entire kidney (known as putty kidney).
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RADIOLOGICAL SIGNS IN ORTHOPEDICSClassical radiological feature
Condition
Sunray appearance, Codman's triangle
Osteosarcoma
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Onion peel appearanceEwing's sarcoma
Soap bubble appearance
Osteoclastoma
Speckled/ Mottled/ Patchy calcification
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ChondrosarcomaWormian bones
Osteogenesis imperfect
Trethowan's sign
Slipped capital femoral epiphysis
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Aneurysmal signTB Spine
Honey comb appearance
Adamantinoma
Moth-eaten appearance in bone (permeative
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? Multiple myelomaprocess of bone)
? Primary lymphoma of bone (reticulum cell
sarcoma)
? Ewing sarcoma
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? Infection? Eosinophilic granuloma
? Malignant fibrous histiocytoma
? Metastases, especially Burkitt lymphoma
? Mycosis fungoides
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Driven snow appearancePindborg tumor
IMPORTANT FEATURES:
Sutural diastasis, copper beaten skull
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Raised intracranial tensionBracket calcification
Lipoma of corpus callosum
Dawson fingers on brain MRI
Multiple sclerosis
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Tram track/ rail road track gyriform cortical calcificationsSturge weber syndrome
Hyperdense MCA sign, Insular ribbon loss sign
Acute stroke
Light bulb sign on MR diffusion
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Pseudo delta sign, Cortical vein signSAH
Sugar icing appearance , Zuckerguss appearance
Medulloblastoma
Dural tail sign, Mother-in-law sign, Sunburst/ spoke wheel
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Meningiomatumour vascularity
Geographic lytic skull, Vertebra plana
Eosinophilic Granuloma
Multiple punched out lesion in skull vault
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Multiple myelomaHair-on-end skull vault
Thalassemia
Picture frame vertebra
Pagets disease
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Fish mouth vertebraSickle cell anemia, Homocystienuria
Bat wing 4th ventricle
Joubert syndrome
Boxcar ventricles
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Huntington's diseaseClover leaf skull
Thanatophoric dysplasia
Cord sign, Empty delta sign
Intravertebraldural sinus thrombosis
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Corduroy appearance, Polka dot appearanceIntravertebral hemangioma
Eye of the tiger sign
Hollaverden spatz syndrome
Flat tyre sign, Umbrella sign
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Ruptured globeFigure of 8 appearance
Pachygyria
Fish vertebrae
Sickle cell disease
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Hot cross bun signMultisystem atrophy
Inverted napoleon hat sign
Spondylolisthesis
Scottie-terrier dog sign
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SpondylolysisMount fuji sign
Tension pneumocephalus
Reversal sign
Anoxic brain injury
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Salt and pepper patternVascularity in glomus tumours
Sandwich vertebra
Osteopetrosis
Strawberry skull on antenatal USG
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Trisomy 18Tau sign
Persistent trigeminal artery
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X-ray features of Osteosarcoma:? Area of irregular destruction of metaphyses
? Erosion of the overlying cortex
? New bone formation in the matrix of the tumor
? Irregular periosteal reaction
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? Codman's triangle? Sun-ray appearance
Disease
Radiological feature
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OsteosarcomaVariable mixture of radio opacities & radiolucency (hall mark)
Sun burst/ sun ray appearance (11nd). Codman's triangle (non specific)
Osteoclastoma Ewing's
Soap bubble appearance
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sarcomaOnion peel appearance
Paget's disease
In osteo lytic hot phase: Advancing wedge/ Blade of grass/ candle flame appearance
In mixed phase: cotton ball skull, picture frame vertebrae
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In cool phase: bowing, bone density increasedFeatures
Disorders
Geographic lytic skull /Vertebrae
Eosinophilic granuloma/ Hans- Schuller Christian disease/Histiocytosis
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planaMultiple punched out lesions
Multiple myeloma
Chicken wire calcification
Chondroblastoma (CODMAN'S TUMOR)
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Hair on end skull vaultThalassemia, sickle cell anemia
Erosion of dorsum Sella
Raised ICT (earliest & most common)
Salt peeper skull
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HyperparathyroidismSilver beaten app. Of vault
Raised ICT
Sunray calcification with spicules
Meningioma
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Epiphyseal dysgenesis, Punctate/ fragmented epiphysisHypothyroidism
Epiphyseal enlargement with squaring and angulation
Juvenile chronic arthritis
? Small epiphysis marginated by sclerotic rim (Wimberger sign)
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Scurvy? Radiodense calcification at growing metaphyseal end (Frankel's
line),
? Radiolucent zone due to lack of mineralization of osteoid
(Trumerfeld zone),
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? Pelkan's spur & Subperiosteal hemorrhageEpiphyseal widening, Cupped & frayed metaphysic
Rickets
PUNCHED OUT LESIONS OF SKULL
? Infectious Disorders
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oFungal osteomyelitis
o
Blastomycosis
o
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Coccidioidomycosis? Granulomatous, Inflammatory Disorders
o
Sarcoidosis
o
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Hand-Schuller-Christian syndrome? Neoplastic Disorders
o
Metastatic bone disease
o
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Adenocarcinoma of prostateo
Multiple myeloma
? Metabolic, Storage Disorders
o
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Gouto
Histiocytosis X
? Congenital, Developmental Disorders
o
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Bony cystic angiomatosis? Hereditary, Familial, Genetic Disorders
o
Ollier's enchondromatosis
? Vegetative, Autonomic, Endocrine Disorders
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oPrimary Hyperparathyroidism
? Reference to Organ System
o
Systemic mastocytosis
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HAIR ON END SKULL(HINEST)
? Hereditary spherocytosis
? Iron deficiency anemia
? Neuroblastoma
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? Enzyme (G-6PD) deficiency? Sickle cell disease
? Thalassemia major
Radiological signs of vertebral diseases:
Vertebra piano
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Eosinophilic GranulomaRugger jersey spine
Osteopetrosis, osteodystrophy due to CRF
Fish mouth vertebra
Homocystinuria, Sickle cell anemia
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Cod mouth vertebraOsteoporosis, osteomalacia &
Hyperparathyroidism
Picture frame vertebra, "cotton wool," or osteoporosis
Paget's disease
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circumscriptaCalcification of intervertebral disc
Alkaptonuria
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CAUSE OF HAIR ON END SKULL VAULTHemolytic anemias: Thalassemia major/ Cooley's anemia (most common) & Sickle cell anemia, Neoplastic:
Hemangioma: Meningioma; Metastasis
Others: Cyanotic heart disease; Iron deficiency anemia; Ewing's sarcoma, syphilis, infantile cortical hyperostosis
(Caffey's disease).
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RADIOGRAPHIC FINDINGS IN ARTHRITISDisease State
Findings in Hip or Knee
Osteoarthritis
Joint space narrowing, subchondral sclerosis, osteophytes,
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subchondral cystsHip: Superior or medial narrowing
Knee: Early narrowing on Rosenberg views; flattening of femoral
condyles
Rheumatoid arthritis or SLE
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Uniform joint narrowing, erosion near joint capsuleAnkylosing spondylitis
Osteopenia, Osteophytes, ankylosis of sacroiliac joints
Gout
Tophi, erosions
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Calcium pyrophosphateCalcification of menisci and hyaline cartilage
deposition disease
Osteonecrosis
Crescent sign, spotty calcification
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Gaucher diseaseErlenmeyer flask appearance, distal femora
Neuropathic joint
Four Ds: destruction, debris, dislocation, densification (sclerosis,
hypertrophy)
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Hemophilic arthropathyEpiphyseal widening, sclerosis, cysts, joint space narrowing
?
Erosive osteoarthritis: gull's wing/ angel wing appearance.
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AB
C
FIG: BAMBOO SPINE APPEARANCE OF ANKYLOSING SPONDYLITIS
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Figure: The characteristic differences between osteoporosis, osteomalacia, and hyperparathyroidism in the spine.(A) Osteoporosis manifests as a biconcave vertebral body with prominent vertical trabeculae.
(B) Osteomalacia manifests as uniform deossification with a loss of trabecular detail and anterior wedge-shaped
compression fractures.
(C) The "rugger jersey" spine of secondary hyperparathyroidism manifests as increased density adjacent to the
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vertebral end plates.Shiny corner sign
Ankylosing spondylitis
Pseudo shiny corner sign
Degenerative spondylosis
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Waldenstrom signOsteoarthritis hip
Patellar tooth sign
Patella-femoral joint OA
Movie sign
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Chondromalacia patellaeLicked candy stick appearance, Jigsaw vertebra
Atrophic neuropathic arthritis
Tumbling building block spine
Migrating mouse sign
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Synovio-chondro-metaplasiaApple core deformity of hip
Cocktail sausage digit, spindle digit, ivory phalanx, Pencil in cup/
Psoriatic arthropathy
pestle and mortar/ mushroom and stem/ balancing pagoda/ cup in
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saucer appearance, opera glass hand, whittling effect, mouse earssign
Bone in bone appearance, Sandwich vertebra, Rugger-jersey spine
Osteopetrosis
Erlenmeyer flask deformity
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Flowing candlewax appearanceMelorrhosteosis
Hot cross bun skull
Cliedo-cranial dysplasia
Paired posterior iliac horns
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nail patella syndromeElephant ears, Mickey mouse ears, Clinodactyly
Downs syndrome
Bare orbit, Empty orbit sign
Neurofibromatosis-1
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Hook shaped vertebral bodies, Cut corner signMPS l/ hurler syndrome
Central beaking of vertebrae, Ape like pelvis
MPS IV/ morquio syndrome
Gull wing sign
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Erosive OASteinberg sign
Marfan syndrome
Pelkan spur/ Pencil thin cortex/ Corner sign of Parke
Scurvy
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Trummerfield zone of rarefaction/ White line of Frankel/ Wimbergersign
Looser zone/ lines, Milkmans fracture, Osteoid seams
Osteomalacia
Increment fracture, Umbau zones
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Rugger jersey spine/ Brown tumours/ Pepper pot skull/ SubperiostealHyperparathyroidism
resorption of phalanges
Cotton wool appearance, Candle flame/ blade of grass lysis
Pagets disease
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Picture frame vertebraPenumbra sign
Brodies abscess
Inverted napoleon hat sign, Gendarme's cap sign
Spondylolisthesis
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Bowline of Brailsford, Broken collar/ neck of scotty dog, Scottishterrier sign
Button sequestrum, Floating teeth sign, Hole with hole appearance
Histiocytosis-X
Swan neck deformity, Boutonniere deformity, Hitch hiker thumb
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RAHammer toes
Trident hand, Tomb stone iliac bone, Cheuron sign
Achondroplasia
Intervertebral disc calcification
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AlkaptonuriaPear shaped vertebra
Spondylo-epiphyseal dysplasia
congenita
Hump shaped vertebra, Heaped up vertebra
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Spondylo-epiphyseal dysplasiatarda
Inferiorly beaked vertebra
MPS l/ hurler syndrome
Centrally beaked vertebra
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MPS IV/ hunter syndromeBiconcave lens vertebra
Osteogenesis imperfecta
Spool shaped vertebra
Pyknodysostosis
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Bullet nose vertebraAchondroplasia
Vertebra with central anterior tongues
Pseudochondroplasia
H shaped vertebra
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Thanatophoric dwarfismFEATURES OF BRAIN HEMATOMA ON CT SCAN
Extradural
Subdural
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Subarachnoid: (SAH)? Biconvex (Lens
? Crescent
? Non- contrast CT is investigation of choice for diagnosing
shaped/
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(Concavo-the hematoma.
lenticular)
Convex)
? Four vessels (both carotids & both vertebra's) Digital
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? Hyper dense? Hyper dense
subtraction angiography (DSA) is the investigation of
in acute cases.
(<2 weeks)
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choice for determining etiology.? Hypo dense in
? Isodense (2-4
? The hallmark of SAH is blood in CSF detected by lumbar
Chronic cases
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wks)puncture.
? Hypo dense (> 4
? Lysis of blood in CSF causes Xanthochromia which is peak
wks)
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at 48 hours.? Most common intracranial lesion after head injury is subdural hematoma.
? Most common cause of SAH is head trauma.
? Investigation of choice for SAH is Non- contrast CT
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? M.C. cause of spontaneous SAH is ruptured saccular aneurysm.Diffuse axonal injury (DAI)
? It is caused by shearing of the white matter, often at the gray-white junction.
? May be due to the differing tissue density or fixation between two structures in differing response to
rotation, acceleration, and deceleration.
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? Detection is often associated with changes in the lobar white matter, brainstem, and corpus callosum withovoid or elongated regions of decreased density.
? Patients usually present with severe impairment of consciousness from the moment of impact.
? MRI (FLAIR or T2 weighted) - most useful in defining the extent of axonal shearing and non-hemorrhagic
injury.
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? CT results -often negative, but acute areas of petechial hemorrhage & cerebral edema have been seen inearly stages.
IMPORTANT SIGNS IN RADIOLOGY
? Puff of smoke sign: Moyamoya disease
? Polka dot sign: vertebral hemangioma
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? Dripping candle wax sign: melorheostosis? Accordion sign: pseudomembranous colitis
? Air crescent sign: aspergilloma
? Angelwing sign: pulmonary edema [bat wing sign]
? Air bronchogram sign: pneumonia
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? Anteater's nose sign: tarsal coalition? Apple core appearance: Ca Colon
? Blade of grass sign [Flame sign]: Paget's disease
? Bevelled edge appearance: eosinophilic granuloma
? Bowler hat sign, Mexican hat sign: colonic polyp
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? Black pleura sign: alveolar microlithiasis? Bird of prey sign: sigmoid volvulus
? Bone within bone appearance: osteopetrosis
? Breast within breast appearance: hamartoma of breast
? Bear paw sign: xanthogranulomatous Pyelonephritis
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? Pelvic brim sign: Paget's disease? Bite sign, crescent sign: avascular necrosis of femur
? Bulging fissure sign: Klebsiella pneumonia
? Banana sign/ lemon sign: neural tube defect
? Carman meniscus sign: Ca stomach
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? Cotton wool appearance: Paget disease? Cobra head appearance: Ureterocele
? Coblestone appearance: Crohn's disease
? C sign: tarsal coalition
? Coffee bean sign: sigmoid volvulus
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? Colon cut off sign: acute pancreatitis? Comb sign: Crohn's disease
? Comet tail sign: round atelectasis
? Comet sign: pelvic phlebolith
? Continuous diaphragm sign: pneumomediastinum
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? Corduroy sign: vertebral hemangioma? Corkscrew oesophagus: diffuse esophageal spasm
? Crazy paving sign: pulmonary alveolar proteinosis
? Champagne glass pelvis: Achondroplasia
? Celary stalk sign: rubella, osteopathia striata, anterior cruciate ligament degeneration
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? Corkscrew sign: midgut volvulus? Cottage loaf sign: diaphragmatic rupture
? Codfish vertebra: sickle cell disease
? Jerry Thomas sign: scapho lunate dislocation
? Dense MCA sign: hyperacute stroke(CT sign)
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? Double bubble sign: duodenal atresia, annular pancreas? Double density sign: enlarged left atrium (mitral stenosis)
? Doughnut sign: testicular torsion(nuclear scan)
? Draping aorta sign: leaking abdominal aortic aneurysm
? Deep sulcus sign: pneumothorax
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? Double duct sign: periampullary, pancreatic Ca? Erlenmeyer flask deformity: Gaucher's disease, thalassemia, osteopetrosis, pyle's disease
? Fat pad sign: pericardial effusion
? Foot ball/ falciform ligament sign: Pneumoperitoneum (infant)
? Fallen lung sign: fracture bronchus
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? Fishhook ureter: BPH? Flat waist sign: left lower lobe collapse
? Gloved finger sign: allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis
? Gull wing sign: erosive osteoarthritis
? Goose neck sign: endocardial cushion defect
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? Hampton line: benign gastric ulcer? Hampton hump: pulmonary infarction
? Honda sign: sacral insufficiency fracture
? Hide bound appearance: scleroderma
? Hair on end appearance: hemolytic anemia
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? Hot nose sign: brain death? Holly leaf appearance: asbestosis
? Hot cross bun sign: multi system atrophy-C
? Half moon/ light bulb sign: posterior shoulder dislocation
? Head cheese sign: hypersensitivity pneumonitis
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? Ivory vertebra: osteoblastic vertebral metastasis? Insular ribbon sign: acute cerebral infarct
? Ivory phalanx: psoriasis
? Molar tooth sign: extra peritoneal bladder rupture
? Mercedes Benz sign: gall stone
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? Micky mouse sign: Paget's disease? Napoleon hat sign: spondylolisthesis
? 1-2-3 sign: Sarcoidosis
? Pie in the sky sign: urethral injury
? Pyloric teat, pyloric beak, caterpillar sign, double triple track sign, string sign: hypertrophic pyloric stenosis
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? Rugger Jersey spine: secondary hyperparathyroidism? Rigler sign: Pneumoperitoneum
? Rice grain calcification: cysticercosis
? Ring sign: renal papillary necrosis
? Sandwich sign: lymphoma
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? Spine sign: lower lobe pneumonia? String of beads sign: mechanical small bowel obstruction
? Stack of coins: scleroderma
? Trough sign: posterior shoulder dislocation
? Westermark sign: pulmonary embolism
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? Yin yang sign: partly thrombosed aneurysm? Wimberger's sign: congenital syphilis
IMPORTANT FACTS
? FARADAY CAGE: prevent the passage of electromagnetic waves. Contain Mu-copper foils which can be
applied as wall papers.
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? Contrast used in CT: lohexol (non ionic),Metrizamide- not used now? Dye of choice for myelography: lopamidol
? Pindborg tumor: calcifying Epithelial Odontogenic Tumor (CEOT)
? M/C cause of intra cranial calcification: Pineal body calcification
? M/c endocrine abnormality following intracranial radiotherapy: Growth hormone deficiency
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? M/C calcifying brain tumor in child: Craniopharyngioma followed by oligodendroglioma? Suprasellar calcification with cystic appearance: Craniopharyngioma
? M/C solid renal neoplasm in neonates: Mesoblastic nephroma
? M/C malignant abdominal neoplasm in children: Wilm's tumor (nephroblastoma)
? M/C malignancy in children: Leukemia > Brain tumors > Nephroblastoma
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? M/C renal mass in childhood: Hydronephrosis > multicystic dysplastic kidney> Nephroblastoma? Hyperparathyroidism: Brown's tumor (m/c in mandible), Subperiosteal erosion (Hallmark), Salt pepper
appearance & basket work appearance.
? Williams syndrome/ Idiopathic hypercalcemia of malignancy: Supravalvular aortic stenosis, Mental
retardation & Elfin facies(round faces with full cheeks & lips)
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? Emergency radiotherapy given in:o
Neoplastic cardiac tamponade
o
Acute epidural spinal cord compression
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oTumor lysis syndrome
o
Severe hypercalcemia
o
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SVC syndrome.? M/C radiation induced secondary cancer: Leukemia
? M/C radiation induced secondary cancer following treatment for head & neck cancers: Thyroid cancer
? Neutron beams are more effective in treating salivary gland tumors.
? Soap bubble appearance in abdominal x-ray -Meconium ileus
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? Soap bubble appearance in head CT-Cryptococcal meningitis? Soap bubble calcification in x-ray-Osteoclastoma
? Puffed rice appearance on CT-Scan head-neurocysticercosis
? Soap bubble cerebral calcification in head CT-Toxoplasmosis (Congenital)
COMMON CAUSES OF EGG SHELL CALCIFICATION OF NODES
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? Egg shell calcification means peripheral rim calcification of lymph nodes.? Pneumoconiosis (M.C): Silicosis (M.C), Coal workers pneumoconiosis: not seen in Asbestosis, berylliosis,
baritosis, talcosis.
? Sarcoidosis & Lymphoma following radiotherapy
? Rare causes are: Fibrosing mediastinitis, Fungal + Bacterial infections: histoplasmosis, Coccidiodomycosis,
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Blastomycosis, Tuberculosis, AmyloidosisTYPES OF CALCIFICATIONS:
Popcorn calcification
Pulmonary hamartoma, Mediastinal nodes in acute histoplasmosis,
fibroadenoma
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Pericardial calcificationConstrictive pericarditis
Cardiac calcification
Carcinoid syndrome
Basal ganglia calcification
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Idiopathic(M/C), HypoparathyroidismEgg shell calcification
Silicosis, Sarcoidosis, TB, lymphoma after radiation
Rice grain calcification
Cysticercosis
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Tram track(rail road)calcificationSturge Weber syndrome
Calcification of menisci
Pseudogout
Adrenal & ear pinna calcification
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Addison's diseaseCardiac wall calcification
Endomyocardial fibrosis
Most common primary CNS neoplasm
Glioblastoma multiforme
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2nd most common primary CNS neoplasmMeningioma
Most common intracranial germ cell tomour
Germinoma
Most common mixed glioma
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Oligo-astrocytomaMost common site of schwannoma
Vestibular division on 8th nerve
Most common intracranial tumour in neonates
Teratoma
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M/C primary intracranial neoplasm in sellar/ parasellarPituitary adenoma
region
Most common intraaxial posterior fossa tumor in adults
Metastasis from extracranial sites
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Most common of all primary intracranial neoplasmsGlioblastomamultiforme
Most common supretentorial neoplasm in adults
Glioblastomamultiforme
Most common intracranial tumour to calcify
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OligodendrogliomaMost common site of cellular ependymoma in brain
4th ventricle
Most common nonglial primary brain tumour
Meningioma
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Most common intracranial extraaxial tumourMeningioma
most common spinal extradural neoplasm
Metastasis
Most common benign spinal neoplasm
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Vertebral hemangiomaMost common malignant extradural neoplasm
Metastasis
Most common spinal intramedullary tumour in adults
Ependymoma
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Most common spinal intramedullary tumour in children
Astrocytoma
CEREBRAL RING ENHANCING LESIONS
DR MAGIC LNT
? Demyelinating disease
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? Radiation? Metastasis (2nd m/c)
? Abscess
? Glioblastoma multiforme (m/c cause)
? Infarct
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? Contusion? Lymphoma
? Neurocysticercosis
? Tuberculoma
? Toxoplasmosis
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? Syphilis? Behcet disease
A
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B
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Cysticercosis; contrast-enhanced CT. Sections at the levels of the third ventricle (A) and the lateral ventricles (B).Lesions are at different stages of development: homogeneously enhancing ring with calcified scolex; some are
associated with vasogenic oedema.
A
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B
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Tuberculoma: CT. Axial sections before (A) and after (B) IV contrast medium: a superficial mass slightly denser thanbrain is surrounded by vasogenic oedema in the frontal and temporal lobes; it shows marked contrast enhancement.
IV.
INVESTIGATION OF CHOICE
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RADIO NUCLIDE IMAGING
? 99Tc is the most commonly used radiopharmaceutical, for imaging in nuclear medicine; it is used with
different ligands for imaging of different sites.
Radio nuclide
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UsesTc 99m labeled serum albumin
Detection of pulmonary embolism
Tc 99m labeled RBC's
Spleen imaging
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Tc 99m labeled DMSARenal morphology
Tc 99m labeled DTPA
Measures GFR
Tc 99m labeled HIDA/ PIPIDA
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Functions of hepato biliary treeTc 99m labeled MAG-3
Diagnostic of transplant rejection
Thallium 201 chloride
Cardiac imaging (cold spots in myocardial studies)
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Ga-67 nitrateTo detect tumours, inflammation, abscess cavities
COLD NODULE
? Area of decreased radio isotope intake.
? 15 -- 20 % of cold nodules may be malignant.
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? Multiple cold nodules with interfering regions of increased uptake indicates a multi nodular gland with lowincidence of associated malignancy.
HOT NODULE
? Area of increased radio-isotope uptake
? Almost never harbors malignancy, represent a benign condition
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? Represents either autonomous or hypertrophic areaException: Warthin's tumor & oncocytoma- malignant tumour showing hot nodule on radionuclide scan
TECHNETIUM-99M BONE SCAN
? The bone scan labels the osteoblast activity with the radioactive tracer, technetium-99.
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? An increase in osteoblastic activity results in the incorporation of more of the diphosphonate molecule intothe mineral matrix of bone, causing it to appear "hot" or "dark";
? Absence of osteoblastic activity produces a "cold" or photopenic ("photon poor") area, due to decreased
radiotracer localization and photon emission.
INDICATIONS:
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? Malignant Tumors : Primary and Metastatic? Benign Bone Tumors: Osteoid Osteoma
? Trauma: Occult Fractures, Domestic Violence/Abuse
? Infection: Osteomyelitis, Arthritis
? Metabolic diseases: Paget's , Bone (Avascular) Necrosis
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? Soft Tissue diseases: Myositis Ossificans? Unexplained bone Pain
"HOT" BONE SCAN:
? Seen in any disorder that results in increased bone formation.
? Areas of active bone metabolism, such as the epiphyseal growth plate, most metastatic bone lesions,
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osteoarthritis and osteomyelitis.? In normal cases, the "hottest" areas are those undergoing the most rapid growth, including the distal
femur, the proximal tibia, and the proximal humerus. In the adult, greater activity is seen in the axial
skeleton than in the appendicular skeleton
? Regional Hyperactivity may be due to:
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oNormal bone growth and remodeling
o
Increased blood flow(trauma, heterotopic ossification)
o
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Reactive osteoblastic activity (active infections, tumors)o
Reparative bone process(healing fractures, tumors, infections)
o
Hyper-metabolic activity(metabolic disorders)
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? Lesions that appear hot on bone scan include healing fractures and osteoblastic tumors, such as osteogenicsarcoma.
COLD BONE SCAN:
? A loss of blood flow to the bone, or a bone infarction, can cause this type of spot.
? When a person suffers a bone infarction, the part of the bone that no longer receives blood can die, leading
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it to collapse.? Multiple myeloma may not show up on a bone scan because only osteoclastic activity is involved in the
majority of lesions.
? Malignant Tumors
o
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Lung (2-4%)o
Breast (5%)
o
Renal (10%)
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oNeuroblastomas (bone marrow metastasis)
o
Thyroid (most cases)
o
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Multiple Myeloma (most cases)? Bone Abscesses (they are surrounded by activity)
? Bone ischemia (AVN, sickle cell, etc.)
? Hemangiomas(normal or decreased activity)
BONE SCAN IN METASTATIC LESIONS:
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? Most sensitive routine imaging modality to try and identify both sclerotic and lytic lesions.? In most cases they demonstrate increased uptake (hot spot) although occasionally (in very aggressive purely
lytic lesions) a photopaenic defect (cold spot) may be visible.
SUPERSCAN:
? Greater than normal activity in the kidneys is most commonly due to urinary tract obstruction, and bilaterally
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decreased activity most often reflects renal failure.? An important exception to the latter is the absence of renal activity in the so-called superscan, in which
diffuse skeletal uptake is so avid that renal uptake is undercut.
? A common condition producing a superscan is diffusely metastatic prostate carcinoma.
INVESTIGATION OF CHOICE
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USGCT-Scan
HRCT
MRI
PET/SPECT
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Cystic lesions,Adrenals, pancreas,
Lung pathology like
Posterior fossa,
Occult
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fluidmediastinum,
bronchiectasis,
spine CNS,
metastasis
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accumulationcalcification, cerebral
interstitial lung
muscle, soft
hemorrhage
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diseasetissue, joints,
etc.,
INVESTIGATION OF CHOICE IN CARDIAC CONDITIONS
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Cardiac conditions
Investigation of choice
Aortic dissection: Stable patient
MRI
Unstable patient
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Trans esophageal Echo with CT scanPericardial effusion
Echo (Investigation of choice), CT/MRI (second choice)
Valvular disease
Trans esophageal echo cardiogram
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Constrictive pericarditisMRI
Coarctation of aorta
Gadolinium-enhanced 3D MRA
Myocardial function
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Tc-Albumin scanCardiac tamponade/ Cardiomyopathy
Echo cardiogram
? Gold standard test for ventricular function in heart: MRI.
INVESTIGATION OF CHOICE IN RESPIRATORY CONDITIONS
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? Pleural effusion- lateral decubitus? Pneumothorax - CXR PA view on full expiration.
? Bronchiectasis in ILD: HRCT
INVESTIGATION OF CHOICE FOR OTHER CONDITIONS
? Single Bone Metastasis -- CT
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? Multiple Bone Metastasis -- Bone scan? Spine Metastasis -- MRI
? Avascular necrosis- MRI
? Bone Density/Osteoporosis- DEXA (Dual energy x ray absorptiometry)
? Aneurysm/ AV Fistula- Angiography
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? Dissecting Aneurysm (Stable) - MRI (Unstable)-Trans oesophageal USG? Pericardial Effusion- Echocardiography
? Lobulated pericardial effusion- MRI > CT
? Minimum Pericardial Effusion- Echocardiography
? Ventricular Function- Echocardiography
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? Radiotherapy/Chemotherapy induced cardiotoxicity- Endomyocardial Biopsy? Pulmonary Embolism- CECT> Pulmonary Angiography > V/Q Scan
? Interstitial lung disease(Sarcoidosis)- HRCT
? Bronchiectasis- HRCT scan
? Solitary Pulmonary Nodule- High resolution CT (HRCT)
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? Posterior Mediastinal Tumor- MRI? Pancoast Tumor (Superior Sulcus Tumor) -- MRI
? Minimum Ascites/Pericardial effusion/Pleural effusion -- USG
? Traumatic Paraplegia- MRI
? Posterior Cranial Fossa -- MRI
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? Acute Haemorrhage- CT? Chronic Haemorrhage- MRI
? Intracranial Space Occupying Lesion- MRI
? Primary brain tumour- contrast MRI (Gold standard however remains to be biopsy)
? Metastatic brain tumor- (Gadolinium) contrast enhanced MRI
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? Temporal Bone-CT? SAH Diagnosis- unenhanced CT
? SAH aetiology- 4 vessel MR Angiography > CT Angiography > DSA
? Nasopharyngeal angiofibroma- CECT scan
? Acoustic neuroma- Gadolinium DTPA enhanced MRI
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? Obstetrics- USG? Calcifications- CT
? Blunt abdominal Trauma- CT
? Acute Pancreatitis- CT
? GERD- pH manometer > endoscopy
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? Dysphagia- Endoscopy? Congenital hypertrophic pyloric stenosis- USG
? Extrahepatic biliary atresia- perioperative cholangiogram
? Obstructive Jaundice/GB Stones- USG
? Diverticulosis -- barium enema
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? Diverticulitis -- CT scan? Renal TB (early) --IVP (Late)- CT
? Posterior Urethral Valve- MCU
? Ureteric stone- non contrast CT
? Renal Artery Stenosis- Percutaneous Angiography
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? Extraintestinal Amoebiasis- ELISA? Discrete swelling(solitary nodule) of thyroid- FNAC
? MRI is the investigation of choice for imaging traumatic spine (ex paraplegia). CT is second best investigation.
? The most important imaging modality in suspected or known acute head trauma is the noncontrast CT. CT is
superior to MRI for the detection of acute blood and fractures,
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Small intestinal tumorCT contrast
Early renal TB
IVP
Advanced renal TB
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CT> IVP> USGPregnant lady with abdominal mass
MRI
Dental & TM joint pathology
Ortho pantomography [OPG]
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Meckel's diverticulum
? Most common type of omphalomesenteric duct remnant.
? Results from failure of the yolk sac to close during fetal life
? Present in 0.5-3% of the population.
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? Occur 30-90 cm from the ileocaecal valve and range in size from 0.5 to 13 cm in diameter.? About 20-40% cause symptoms.
? Complications: ulceration, bleeding, perforation, inflammation, intussusception, internal hernia, volvulus,
and adhesions.
? Ectopic gastric mucosa is present in the diverticulum in about 20% of all patients who present with bleeding
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and in 95% of children who bleed.? Radionuclide imaging with 99mtechnetium pertechnetate is more accurate (sensitivity-85%) in the
paediatric age group than in adults.
? Meckel's diverticula which haemorrhage contain ectopic gastric mucosa in 95% of cases and 99mTc
scintigraphy is useful in this subset of patients.
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? A characteristic angiographic feature: demonstration of a persistent vitellointestinal artery in who presentwith chronic gastrointestinal bleeding.
FOREIGN BODIES
? IOC: conventional film-screen radiography
? Glass objects: plain radiography, xeroradiography, CT and MRI.
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? Gravel: all methods except MRI where ferromagnetic streak artefacts may obscure visualization. Plastic:easily detected by MRI.
? Wooden foreign bodies, especially when wet, are only seen by CT and MRI.
? Xeroradiography does not have any benefit over plain radiography in identifying foreign bodies.
? FB in children: USG
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GOLD STANDARD METHODSFor diagnosis of breast cancer
Mammography
For staging of breast cancer
Axillary lymph node dissection
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For evaluation of a stable patient with suspectedAngiography
vascular injury
For diagnosis of GERD
Ambulatory 24 hr pH monitoring
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For the diagnosis of GI perforationFinding pneumoperitoneum
For diagnosis of Zollinger-Ellison syndrome
Serum gastrin levels( most patients have
serum gastrin levels above 1000pennl)
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For diagnosis of colonic mucosal diseaseColonoscopy
For diagnosis of steatorrhoea
Timed quantitative stool fat determination
For treatment of incontinence with an isolated
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Overlapping sphincteroplastysphincter defect
For diagnosis and method of management of acute
Laparotomy
arterial occlusion
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For confirmation of mesentric arterial occlusionMesentric angiography
For diagnosis of celiac disease
Small intestine biopsy
For identifying choledocholithiasis
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ERCPFor diagnosis of primary sclerosing cholangitis
ERCP
For diagnosis of hepatitis C
HCV RNA assay
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For diagnosis of invasive amoebiasisELISA
Of diagnosis of Klatskin tumor
Cholangiography
For assessment of function of sphincter of Oddi
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ManometryFor assessing degree of liver injury and fibrosis
Liver biopsy
For diagnosis of intraluminal bile duct abnormalities
ERCP
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For estimating resting energy expenditureIndirect calorimetry
For diagnosis of iron deficiency anemia
Estimation of serum ferritin
For proving that the life span of red cell is decreased (
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Red cell survival studyuseful in hemolytic anemia)
For evaluation of stem cell transplantation therapy
Hemopoietic stem cell transplantation
For diagnosis of acute pharyngitis
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Throat cultureFor diagnosis of pertussis
Culture of nasopharyngeal secretions
For diagnosis of DVT
Contrast venography
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For differentiating allograft rejection and reactivationEndo-myocardial biopsy
of disease after heart transplantation
For diagnosis of otitis externa caused by p. Aeruginosa
Technetium99 bone scan
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For diagnosis of acoustic neuromaGadolinium MRI
Investigation for diagnosis of shigella infection
Isolation and identification of pathogen from
fecal material
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For diagnosis of tuberculous meningitisCulture of CSF
For diagnosis of HSV encephalitis
Brain biopsy (CSF PCR largely replaced brain
biopsy in recent times)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
For diagnosis of histoplasmosisFungal culture
For diagnosis of hypertrophic cardiomypathy and atrial
Echocardiogram
myxoma
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For imaging heart valves and valve motion
2D echocardiography
abnormalities
For assessment of myocardial viability (identification of
PET
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ischemic or hibernating myocardium)For assessment of LV mass and volume
MRI
For evaluation of renal arteries and identification of
Contrast arteriography
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renal artery lesionsFor evaluation of respiratory gas exchange
ABG
For assessment of albuminuria
24 hr urine collection
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
For diagnosis of PNHFlow cytometry
For diagnosis of ATTR and other AF mutations
DNA sequencing
For identifying and quantifying atherosclerosis in
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X-ray cerebral angiographycerebral arteries
For evaluating anatomy of arterio-venous
X-ray angiography
malformation
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For diagnosis and classification of ataxiaGenotype
For diagnosis of lung infection (radiotherapy induced)
Open-lung biopsy
in a cancer patient
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For assessment of visual impairmentSnellen's chart
For bacterial stain analysis
Pulse-field gel electrophoresis
For resection of anterior and middle mediastinal
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Median or lateral thoracotomymasses
Of treatment of coarctation of aorta
Surgical repair
For evaluation of coronary artery disease
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Cardiac catheterizationFor culture of v. Cholerae o139
Conventional culture method
To determine cut-off titer of widal test for diagnosis of
Nested PCR
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typhoid feverFor diagnosis of chronic arterial mesentric ischemia
Angiography
For evaluation of imaging modalities for liver tumors
Intraoperative ultrasonography
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For diagnosis of common bile duct stonesEndoscopic cholangiography
For measurement of GFR
lnulin clearance
For diagnosis and treatment of ventilator associated
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Broncho alveolar lavagepneumonia (VAP)
To differentiate follicular and papillary carcinoma of
Histology
thyroid gland
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Radiopharmaceuticals currently used and their common clinical applicationsOrgan system
Clinical
Radiopharmaceuti
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Biological behaviourapplication
cal
Cardiovascular system
Myocardial
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Detection of201TI (thallous
K+ analogue extracted in proportion to
perfusion
ischaemia,
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chloride)bloodflow
infarction, and
99mTc isonitriles
Cationic complexes taken up by myocytes
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viabilityin
assessment
99m
proportion to blood flow
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Tc teboroximeLipophilic compound which accumulates by
diffusion
99mTc phosphines
Uptake proportional to blood flow
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MyocardialViability
123I fatty acids
Enters primary metabolic pathway in viable
metabolism
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assessmentcells: limited catabolism
18F-deoxyglucose
Enter metabolic pathway in viable cells
demonstrates secondary shift to anaerobic
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glycolysisCardiac
Quantification of
99mTc-red blood
Characterization of cardiac chambers
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ventriculographright and left
cells
motion, localization of red cells within
y
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ventricularcardiac chambers
function at rest
and with
exercise
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Detection of wall99mTc-albumin
motion
abnormalities
Quantification
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and detection ofshunts (and
valvar
regurgitation)
Cellular blood components
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Red blood cellsDetection of
99mTc-labelled red
Red cell pooling
haemangioma
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blood cellsCardiac
ventriculography
Gastrointestinal
Red cell extravasation
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bleedingRed cell survival
51Cr (sodium
Red cell disappearance from the blood
chromate)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
White bloodLocalization of
99mTc-mln-labelled
Cellular diapedesis
cells
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sites of infectioncells
or inflammation
99mTc-labelled
antigranulocyte
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antibodyPlatelets
Platelet survival
111In-labelled
Platelet sequestration and degradation
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plateletsLocalization of
sites of active
thrombosis
Central nervous system
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Cerebral bloodBlood flow
99mTc-HMPAO
Diffusion through the blood?brain barrier
flow
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distribution(BBB) and brain extraction
Tumours
99mTc-ECD
seizure
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disordersDementia
brain death
studies
Regional blood
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H215OBBB diffusible flow tracer
flow at rest and
upon activation
Cerebral
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Functional and18F-deoxyglucose
Enter metabolic pathway in viable cells
metabolism
regional
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mapping ofneuronal activity
at rest
at rest
upon activation
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during seizurein the interictal
state
Staging of brain
18F-deoxyglucose
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tumourFollow-up of
201TI
therapy
Cerebrospinal
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CSF shunt111ln-DTPA
Follows cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) flow
fluid
patency
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dynamicsLocalization of
CSF leaks
Differentiation
of normal
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pressurehydrocephaly
from atrophy
Gastrointestinal system
Liver--spleen
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Space-occupying99mTc-sulphur
Phagocytosis by reticulo-endothelial cells
imaging
lesions, organ
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colloidsizing, RES
function
Spleen imaging
Detection of
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Heat-damagedSplenic trapping of damaged cells
ectopic splenic
99mTc-
tissue
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labelled red bloodc
9 e
9 ll
m s
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HepatobiliaryAssessment of
Tc-iminodiacetic
Active uptake--follows bilirubin
imaging
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biliary ductsacid derivatives
conjugation
patency
and excretion pathway
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Evaluation ofgallbladder
contractility
Diagnosis of
acute vs chronic
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cholecystitisDifferentiation
between biliary
atresia and
neonatal
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hepatitisBowel transit
Oesophageal
99mTc-sulphur
Transit of labelled material
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studiestransit and reflux
colloid
Gastric emptying
99mTc-sulphur
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Compartmental localization of labelledand antral
colloid
material
motility
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
111ln-DTPAGastric emptying
13or14TC-labelled
Detection in breath of exhaled 13?'14CO2
substrates
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metaboliteDuodenogastric
99mTc-iminodiacetic Bile detection and localization
reflux
acid derivatives
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Small bowel and111ln-DTPA
Transit of labelled material
colon transit
13 or 14C-labelled
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Detection in breath of exhaled 13 or 14CO2substrates
metabolite
Helicobacter
Detection of HP
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13 or 14C-labelledDetection in breath of exhaled 13 or 14CO2
pylori (HP)
Urease
urea
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metaboliteinfection
production
Gastrointestinal
Acute and
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
99mTc-sulphurExtravasation in the bowel
bleeding
chronic bleeding
c
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9 o9 l
mlo
T i
cd
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-l abelledRBC's
Peritoneovenou
Determination
99mTc-sulphur
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Compartmental localizations
of shunt patency
colloid
shunts
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Salivary glandsEvaluation of
99mTc-
Active uptake and secretion
salivary function
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pertechnetateand ducts
patency
Gastric mucosa
Detection and
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99mTc-Active uptake by gastric mucosa
localization of a
pertechnetate
Meckel's
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diverticulurncontaining
gastric mucosa
Genitourinary system
Renal perfusion
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Evaluation of99mTc-DTPA
Early intravascular localization
arterial blood
flow
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Diagnosis of99mTc-MAG3
transplant
99mTc-DTPA
rejection
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Renal function
GFR
51Cr-EDTA
Clearance by glomerular filtration
measurement
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Measurement ofTubular uptake
effective renal
99mTc-MAG3
plasma flow;
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
tubular functionRenal
Detection of
99mTc-DMSA
Retention in renal cortex
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
morphologyrenal infarct
Global renal
morphology
Bladder
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Quantitation of99mTc-DTPA
Compartmental localization
bladder residual
vesicoureteral
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
refluxScrotum
Differentiation
99mTc-
Early intravascular localization
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
between acutepertechnetate
testicular torsion
Pulmonary system
Ventilation scan
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Evaluation of133Xe gas
Distributes in lungs in proportion to
regional
regional
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
ventilation81Krm gas
v
entilation
99mTc aerosols
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Perfusion scanDetection of
99mTc albumin
Pulmonary capillary blockade
pulmonary
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
macroaggregatesemboli, right to
left shunts;
preoperative
and transplant
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
evaluation ofrelative lung
perfusion
Parenchymal
Interstitial lung
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
67GaBinds to transferrin in the intravascular
tissue
disease staging
compartment,
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
and therapeuticevaluation
Musculoskeletal
Detection of soft
99mTc-
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Intravascular and early soft tissuesystem
tissue vs primary
polyphosphate
distribution (Phase I and II)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
bone disorderscompounds
during Phases I
and II of study
Detection of
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Fixed to hydroxyapatite crystals (Phase Ill)benign, alignant,
and
infectious bone
lesions
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Thyroid-parathyroidThyroid
Evaluation of
Iodine-123
Active uptake (123I and 99mTc) followed by
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
gland size,organification (123I)
morphology and
function
(uptake).
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
99mTc- ertechnetateDetermination
of functional
status of nodules
Detection of
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Iodine-131Active uptake and organification
thyroid cancer
and metastases,
thyroid cancer
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
treatmentParathyroid
Localization of
99mTc-M IBI
Cationic complexes taken up in proportion
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
parathyroidto
adenoma and
blood flow and trapped in mitochondria
carcinoma
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Tumour markersNeuroendocrine
Somatostatin
111In-pentetreotide Binds to somatostatin receptors
tissue
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
receptor positive(Octecotide?)
tumours
Lymphopoietic
Staging and
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
67Ga (galliumBinds to transferrin in the intra-vascular
tissue
localization of
citrate)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
compartment, taken up by cancer cells,lymphoma
binds to lactoferrin and ferritin, and
concentrates in lysosomes
Brain neoplasia
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Brain tumour201TI (thallous
Concentrates in tumour cells following BBB
staging and
chloride)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
damagetherapeutic
follow up
Adenocarcinom
Tumour
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
111In-SatumomabAntigen-antibody recognition
a
detection and
pendetide
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
stagingMiscellaneous
Tumour
18F-deoxyglucose
Uptake proportional to tumour
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
neoplasiadetection and
staging
GOLD STANDARD METHODS
? Gold standard for treatment of organ confined, muscle invasive, bladder cancer is ? Radical
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
cystoprostatectomy in men and anterior pelvic exenteration in woman? Gold standard method for management of hydatid disease ? Surgery
? Gold standard method for management of blunt hepatic trauma ? Non-operative management
? Gold standard for treatment of femoral shaft fractures ? Reamed locked intramedullary nailing
? Gold standard method in case of difficult intubation ? Flexible fibreoptic intubation scope
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Gold standard treatment of hyperparathyroidism ? Surgery? Gold standard procedure for thymectomy ? Trans cervical mediastinoscopy and surgery
? Gold standard for treatment of adrenal tumors ? Laparoscopic adrenalectomy
? Gold standard method for treatment of GERD ? Laparoscopic Nissens fundoplication
? Gold standard for evaluating cure rate in duodenal ulcer patients ? Vagotomy
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Gold standard method of treatment of Symptomatic cholelitiasis ? Lap cholecystectomyMAMMOGRAPHY
? Diagnostic accuracy ? 90 ? 95 %
? 45% of breast cancers can be seen on mammography before they are palpable.
Indications:
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Coarse nodular breast, Fibro adenosis, Woman, aged 40yrs with family H/o cancerFEATURES
BENIGN
MALIGNANT
Opacity
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
-Smooth marginIll defined margin(Spiculated)
-Low Density, Homogenous
High density, Wide halo
-Thin Halo
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Calcification-macro calcification (>0.5mm in diameter)
Micro calcification (<0.5mm in
-egg shell curvilinear, -Popcorn(Fibro adenoma), -
diameter)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Floating calcification, -Tramline/ tortuouscalcification, -Rod like Wide spread calcification
Skin
Normal
Thickened
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Nipple/ Areola+retracted
+retracted
Duct
_
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Normal_
F ocal dilatation
Subcutaneous retro
Normal
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Obliteratedmammary space
Surrounding
Normal
Disrupted
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
parenchymaBARIUM STUDIES
Study of GIT by instillation/ ingestion of barium suspension made from pure barium sulphate.
Procedure
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Organ studiedBarium swallow
Oesophagus
Barium meal
From stomach to proximal jejunum
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Barium follow throughFrom stomach to ileocaecal junction
Barium enema
Large intestine (administration of contrast via rectum)
Small bowel enema (Enteroclysis)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
From jejunum to ileocaecal junctionDTPA (Reno gram)
DMSA (Isotope scanning)
? DTPA is useful for evaluating perfusion and
? Tc 99 DMSA is used for Renal morphological
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
functionimaging
? of each kidney
? This compound gets fixed in renal tubules &
? Indications:
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
images may be obtained after 1-2 hours of1.
Measurement of relative renal function in
injection- Lesions such as tumors & benign
each kidney.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
lesions as show filling defect2.
Urinary tract obstruction
? Used to assess cortical function of kidney
3.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Diagnosis of renovascular cause ofhypertension
4.
Investigation of renal transplant
? MCU is the most accurate method of demonstrating vesicoureteric reflux, and as this is important in children
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
with urinary tract infection and reflux nephropathy.? The ascending urethrogram gives excellent anatomical information concerning the distal urethra as far as the
distal sphincter mechanism.
? Ultrasound and CT are the investigations of choice in the diagnosis and staging of renal tumours.
? Dynamic CT is more accurate than angiography in detecting a small neoplasm.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Antegrade pyelography is an accurate method of demonstrating precisely the site of an obstruction to theupper urinary tract.
V.
RADIOTHERAPY
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Radioactivity was discovered by Henry Becquerel in 1896.? J.J. Thompson- discovered electrons
? W.K.Roentgen- discovered X Rays in 1895.
? Madam Marie Curie- discovered radioactive substances radium, uranium etc.
? Rutherford- discovered nucleus, alpha & beta rays
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Chadwick- discovered neutrons? Maxwell- discovered electromagnetic waves
Radiotherapy is treatment of malignant tumor with ionizing radiation, most commonly by using y rays; which causes
excitation or ionization of electron (ejection of electron from orbit) and kills tumor cells by producing double strand
breaks in DNA (direct) or free radicals (indirect).
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? The DNA molecules present along the chromosomes are the critical targets for radiation damage.? Chromosomal abnormalities occur in cells irradiated in G1 phase before doubling of genetic material.
? Chromatid aberration occurs in cells irradiated in G2 phase.
? Most sensitive phase to radiation is M> G2M interphase
? Most resistant phase is end of S phase.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Lymphocyte analysis provides evidence of recent total body exposure.? A typical course of radiation therapy should be described as 4500 cGy delivered to a particular target (e.g.,
mediastinum) over 5 weeks in 180-cGy fractions.
? Most curative radiation treatment programs are delivered once a day, 5 days a week in 150- to 200cGy
fractions.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Therapeutic radiation is delivered in three ways:o
Teletherapy, with beams of radiation generated at a distance and aimed at the tumor within the patient
o
Brachytherapy, with encapsulated sources of radiation implanted directly into/adjacent to tumor
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
tissueso
Systemic therapy, with radionuclides targeted in some fashion to a site of tumor.
? Teletherapy is the most commonly used form of radiation therapy.
? X-rays and gamma rays are the forms of radiation most commonly used to treat cancer.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
RadiationContent
Penetrating
Ionizing
Damaging power
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Sourcespower
power
- Particle Helium nuclei
Poorest
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
MaximumMost damaging
Uranium,
(i.e. 2 protons
Plutonium
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
& 2 neutrons-Particle
Either high
Greater than -
Lesser than
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
< particlePhosphorous-
energy
particle (100)
particle
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
32,strontium-electron or
89,samarium-
antimatter
132,1-131
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
counterpartpositron
X-Ray
Low energy
More than -
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Lesser than< Particle
photons
particles
particle
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Y-Very high
More than X-
Minimum
Least damaging
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Co-60, radium -Radiation
Energy
Rays 10000 i.e.,
ionizing
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
126.photons
Most penetrating
Penetration power: y- ray > x ray > particle > particle
Ionizing & Damaging Power: - particle> -particle> x-ray > y ray
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Gamma rays are produced by decay of atomic nuclei in radioisotopes like cobalt & caesium.? For deep seated tumors, X rays & Gamma rays are used, as high energy penetrating beam deliver a less
intense superficial dose & causes less skin damage.
? Electron beams have very low penetrance & used to treat mycosis fungoides.
? I-131: emits both beta & gamma rays.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Californium: emits neutron.? Heating of tungsten filament by battery produces electron beam which is targeted towards positive charged
tungsten or molybdenum containing copper block; this produces X-rays
? Linear accelerator and betatron are used to produce x-ray by accelerating electrons.
Neutrons
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Uncharged particulate radiation.? Present in nuclear reactors and at high altitudes.
? Have highest penetrating power.
? Water and paraffin wax are effective in absorbing it.
? Predominant neutron emitter: californium.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
BRACHYTHERAPY? First proposed by Forssell in 1931.
? Delivered by two methods:
o
Intra cavitatory therapy: Eg: Manchester system for Rx of Ca. cervix
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
oInterstitial implantation: Eg. HDR therapy for Ca. Bronchus & ca. Oesophagus.
? Radionuclides used in brachytherapy:
o
Caesium 137, Cobalt 60, Iridium 192, Iodine 125, Radium 226, Radon 222, Strontium 90, Samarium 145,
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Palladium 103, Gold 198, Yetrium 169.? The characteristic features of Brachytherapy are:
o
Maximum radiation effect can be obtained in diseased tissue.
o
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Minimum risk of to the normal tissue.o
It requires trained personnel & Invasive
o
It is often used in brain tumours & cervical cancers.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
UNITS OF RADIATIONFeature
S.I. Unit
Non S.I. Unit
Radioactivity
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Becquerel (Bq)Curie
Absorbed dose
Gray (Gy)
Rad
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Dose equivalentSievert (Sv)
Rem
Exposure
Coulombs/ kg
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
RoentgenISOTOPES USED IN MEDICINE
Reactor Radioisotopes (half-life indicated in brackets):
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Molybdenum-99 (66 h): Used as the 'parent' in a generator to produce technetium-99m.? Technetium-99m (6 h): Used in to image the skeleton and heart muscle in particular, but also for brain,
thyroid, lungs (perfusion and ventilation), liver, spleen, kidney (structure and filtration rate), gall bladder,
bone marrow, salivary and lacrimal glands, heart blood pool, infection and numerous specialized medical
studies.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Uses of Technetium 99 tagged RBC's:o
Commonly indicated in Acute Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding.
o
Relatively sensitive & very specific imaging method for noninvasive diagnosis of liver hemangioma.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
oMeasurement of left ventricular ejection fraction. Assessment of regional wall motion (left and right
ventricles).
? Chromium-51 (28 d): Used to label RBC's and quantify gastro-intestinal protein loss.
? Cobalt-60 (10.5 months): Formerly used for external beam radiotherapy.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Copper-64 (13 h): To study genetic diseases affecting copper metabolism. Eg: Wilson's and Menke's diseases.? Dysprosium-165 (2 h): Used as an aggregated hydroxide for synovectomy treatment of arthritis.
? Erbium-169 (9.4 d): Use for relieving arthritis pain in synovial joints.
? Holmium-166 (26 h): Being developed for diagnosis and treatment of liver tumours.
? Iodine-125 (60 d): Used in brachytherapy (prostate and brain), to evaluate the filtration rate of kidneys and
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
to diagnose DVT in the leg. It is also used in radioimmuno-assays to show the presence of hormones in tinyquantities.
? Iodine-131 (8 d): Used in treating thyroid cancer, imaging the thyroid; in diagnosis of abnormal liver
function, renal (kidney) blood flow and urinary tract obstruction. A strong gamma emitter, but used for beta
therapy.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Iridium-192 (74 d): Supplied in wire form for use as an internal radiotherapy source for cancer treatment? Iron-59 (46 d): Used in studies of iron metabolism in the spleen.
? Lutetium-177 (6.7 d): emits just enough gammas for imaging while the beta radiation does the therapy on
small (eg endocrine) tumours. Its half-life is long enough to allow sophisticated preparation for use.
? Palladium-103 (17 d): Used to make brachytherapy permanent implant seeds for early stage prostate cancer.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Phosphorus-32 (14 d): Used in the treatment of polycythemia vera (excess red blood cells). Beta emitter.? Potassium-42 (12 h): Used for the determination of exchangeable potassium in coronary blood flow.
? Rhenium-186 (3.8 d): Used for pain relief in bone cancer. Beta emitter with weak gamma for imaging.
? Rhenium-188 (17 h): Used to beta irradiate coronary arteries from an angioplasty balloon.
? Samarium-153 (47 h): Sm-153 is very effective in relieving the pain of secondary cancers lodged in
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
the bone, sold as Quadramet. Also very effective for prostate and breast cancer. Beta emitter.? Selenium-75 (120 d): Used as seleno-methionine to study the production of digestive enzymes.
? Sodium-24 (15 h): For studies of electrolytes within the body.
? Strontium-89 (50 d): Very effective in reducing the pain of prostate & bone cancer. Beta emitter.
? Xenon-133 (5 d): Used for pulmonary (lung) ventilation studies.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Ytterbium-169 (32 d): Used for cerebrospinal fluid studies in the brain.? Ytterbium-177 (1.9 h): Progenitor of Lu-177.
? Yttrium-90 (64 h): for brachytherapy and as silicate colloid for relieving pain of arthritis. Pure beta emitter.
? Radioisotopes of caesium, gold and ruthenium are also used in brachytherapy.
Cyclotron Radioisotopes:
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Carbon-11, Nitrogen-13, Oxygen-15, Fluorine-18: positron emitters used in PET.? F-18 in FDG in detection of cancers and the monitoring of progress in their treatment, using PET.
? Cobalt-57 (272 d): Used as a marker to estimate organ size and for in-vitro diagnostic kits.
? Gallium-67 (78 h): For tumour imaging & localization of inflammatory lesions (infections).
? Indium-111 (2.8 d): Used for specialist diagnostic studies, eg brain studies, infection and colon transit
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
studies.? Iodine-123 (13 h): Used for diagnosis of thyroid function, a gamma emitter without the beta radiation of 1-
131.
? Krypton-81m (13 sec) from Rubidium-81 (4.6 h): Kr-81m gas can yield functional images of pulmonary
ventilation, e.g. in asthmatic patients, and for the early diagnosis of lung diseases and function.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Rubidium-82 (65 h): Convenient PET agent in myocardial perfusion imaging.? Strontium-92 (25 d): Used as the 'parent' in a generator to produce Rb-82.
? Thallium-201 (73 h): for diagnosis of coronary artery disease, other heart conditions such as heart muscle
death and for location of low-grade lymphomas.
T1/2 in hours
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
T1/2 in daysT1/2 in years
I132-2.3 hours
I131- 8 days; Gold- 2.7 days
Co60- 5.2 years
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Tc99-6 hoursThallium-3.2 days; Radon-3.8 days
Tritium- 12 years
I123-13 hours
Xenon-5.2 days; P32- 14 days
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
St 90- 28 years ; Cs132- 30 yearsI125- 60 days
Ra- 1622 years; U? 701 x 108 yrs
Co- 60 has the following features:
? Naturally occurring isotope
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Atomic. No. 27? Atomic. Wt. 58.93
? Half- life 5.3 years
? Emits and y- rays
? Used in both brachy & Teletherapy
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Internal Contaminant Radionuclides: Properties and TreatmentIsotope
Symbol
Common
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
RadiationExposure
Focal
Treatment
Name
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
UsageType, t%
Type
Accumulation
Radiologic
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
in Bodyt1/2
Biologic,
days
Manganese
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Mn-56Reactors,
, y, 2.6 h
External,
Liver
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
N/Aresearch
5.7
internal
laboratories
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Cobalt
Co-60
Medical
, y, 5.26 y
External,
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
LiverGastric lavage,
radiotherapy
9.5
internal
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
purgatives;devices,
penicillamine in
commercial
severe cases
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
foodirradiators
Strontium
Sr-90
Fission
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
, 28 yInternal
Bones--
Strontium, calcium,
product of
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
18,000similar to
Ammonium chloride
uranium
calcium
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
MolybdenumMo-99
Hospitals--
, y, 66.7
External,
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
KidneysN/A
scans
h 3
internal
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
TechnetiumTc-99m
Hospitals--
, y, 6.049
External,
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Kidneys, totalPotassium
scans
h 1
internal
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
bodyperchlorate to
reduce thyroid dose
Cesium
Cs-137
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Medical, y,, 30 y
External,
Renal
Ion-exchange
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
radiotherapy70
internal
excretion
resins, Prussian
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
devicesblue
Gadolinium
Gd-153
Hospitals
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
, y, 242 dExternal,
N/A
N/A
1000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
internalIridium
Ir-192
Commercial
0, y, 74 d
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
External,Spleen
N/A
radiography
50
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
internalRadium
Ra-226
Instrument
, , y,
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
External,Bones
MgSO4 lavage,
illumination,
1602 y
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
internalammonium
industrial
16,400
chloride, calcium
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
applications,alginates
old medical
equipment,
former Soviet
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Unionmilitary
equipment
Tritium
H-3
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Luminescent, 12.5 y
Internal
Total body
Dilution with
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
gun sights,12
controlled water
muzzle-
intake, diuretics
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
velocitydetectors,
nuclear
weapons
Iodine-131
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
131IReactor
, y, 8.1 d
Internal
Thyroid
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Potassium/sodiumaccidents,
138
iodide,
thyroid
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
propylthiouracil,ablators
methimazole
Uranium
U-235
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Depleted, , y,
Internal
Kidneys,
NaHCO3, chelation
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
uranium,108 y 15
bones
with EDTA
natural
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
uranium, fuelrods,
weapons-
grade material
Plutonium
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Pu-239Produced
, 2.2 x
Internal
Lungs, bones,
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Chelating withfrom uranium
104y
bone marrow,
DTPA or EDTA
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
in reactors,73,000
liver, gonads
nuclear
weapons
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
AmericiumAm-
Smoke
, 458 y
Internal
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Lungs, liver,Chelating with
241
detectors,
73,000
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
bones, boneDTPA or EDTA
nuclear
marrow
weapon
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
detonationfallout
Polonium
Po-210
Calibration
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
, 138.4 dInternal
Spleen,
Lavage,
source
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
60kidneys
dimercaprol
Thorium
Th-232
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Calibration, 1.41 x
Internal
N/A
N/A
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
source1010y
73,000
Phosphorus
P-32
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
ResearchB,14.3 d
Internal
Bones, bone
Lavage, aluminum
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
laboratories,1155
marrow,
hydroxide
medical
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
rapidlyfacilities
replicating
cells
CRANIOSPINAL IRRADIATION
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Craniospinal irradiation is used for patients who have, or are at risk for, disseminated disease throughout the CNSthat is not sufficiently responsive to chemotherapy (typically methotrexate).
Aim is to irradiate the entire sub arachnoid space,
Indications:
? Medulloblastoma
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? PNET (pineoblastoma, ependymoblastomas, unclassified).? Germ Cell tumour with CSF and/or MRI positive for malignant cells.
? Pure germinoma.
? Non Hodgkins Lymphoma with CSF positive for malignant cells.
Total Body Irradiation (TBI)
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Used as a systemic treatment since 1900 for palliating symptoms or obtaining short term remissions.? Done for: acute leukemia in adult, high grade lymphomas (intensive cytoreductive chemo radiotherapy
followed by Bone Marrow Transplant)
? Prophylactic Craniospinal irradiation is useful in CNS malignancy which disseminates via CSF or any
malignancy with high risk of CNS spread.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? They are: Medulloblastoma, Glioblastoma, Germinoma, Small cell lung Carcinoma, ALL, Non Hodgkin'slymphoma & Leptomeningeal rhabdomyosarcoma.
INDICATIONS FOR TOTAL BODY IRRADIATION
MALIGNANT
NON MALIGNANT
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Leukemias: ALL, AML, CML, hairy cell leukemiaImmune disorders- aplastic anemia
Lymphoma's: NHL, refractory Hodgkin's lymphoma,
Genetic disorders- osteopetrosis,
myelodysplasia, multiple myeloma, mycosis fungoides
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
Fanconi's anemia, wiskott-aldrichsyndrome
Pediatric solid tumors: Ewing sarcoma, Neuroblastoma
Adult solid tumors: testicular Ca, Small cell Ca of lung
? The standard treatment for brain metastases has been whole-brain radiotherapy (WBRT) usually
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
administered to a total dose of 3000 cGy in 10 fractions.? This affords rapid palliation; approximately 80% of patients improve with glucocorticoids and radiation
therapy.
STEREOTACTIC RADIOSURGERY (SRS)
? Introduced by Lekshell in 1951.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? Treats brain disorders with a precise delivery of a single, high dose of radiation in a one-day session.? Ideally confined to a lesion of 3-5cm size.
? Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) delivered through a variety of techniques including the gamma knife, linear
accelerator, proton beam and CyberKnife can deliver highly focused doses of RT, in a single fraction.
? Focused radiation beams are delivered to a specific area of the brain.
--- Content provided by FirstRanker.com ---
? It does not remove the tumor or lesion, but it distorts the DNA of the tumor cells.? The cells then lose their ability to reproduce and retain fluids.
? Most of the beams used today are 4MV or 6MV beams.
? The three basic forms of stereotactic radiosurgery are:
o
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Particle beam (proton)o
Cobalt-60 based (photon), most well-known machine is the Gamma Knife.
o
Linear accelerator based (linac)
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Indications? Arteriovenous Malformations
? Metastatic Brain Tumors
? Acoustic
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? Trigeminal Neuralgia? Neuromas
? Essential Tremor
? Meningiomas
? Parkinson's Tremor/Rigidity
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? Pineal and Pituitary Tumors? Current research areas include epilepsy,
? Glial Tumors and Astrocytomas
headaches and neuro-psycho conditions.
? Low grade tumors
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INTENSITY MODULATED RADIATION THERAPY (IMRT)
? High precision radiotherapy by computer controlled X-ray accelerator to deliver precise radiation doses to a
malignant tumor or specific areas within the tumor.
? IMRT used in treatment of tumours of:
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oBreast, Thyroid, lung, Prostate & Gynecological cancers
o
Head & neck cancers
o
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Liver & brain cancerso
Lymphoma, sarcoma
INTRA OPERATIVE RADIOTHERAPY
? Applied with ortho voltage X --ray
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? Specialized radiation technique for treating deeply located cancers with large single dose, avoiding damageto the normal tissues.
? Intra operative electron beam followed by photons via X- rays & Gamma rays is the recent regimen.
? Used in pancreatic, gastric & rectal cancers; head & neck cancers, genitor urinary & gynecological cancers,
retroperitoneal sarcomas.
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FAST NEUTRON RADIOTHERAPY (FNRT)? Uses neutrons of megaelectron volts (MeV) energy.
? Generated by accelerating either protons or deuterons with cyclotrons or particle accelerators and then
delivering them to appropriate target (mostly beryllium).
? Fission neutrons (1-2MeV) from nuclear reactors can also be used to treat patients.
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? For neutrons of energies used in RT, about 85% of deposited energy is via a knock on reaction (billard balltype collision) involving the hydrogen nucleus ('H).
? Kinetic energy release in matter (KERMA) is larger in high hydrogen content tissue such as fat or myelin.
? It is the higher energy transfer that gives rise to the different radiobiological properties of FNRT.
? Fast neutrons have RBEs 3 to 3.5 in terms of most normal tissue late effects, RBEs 4 to 4.5 in terms of
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damage to CNS and RBEs 8 for salivary gland malignant tumors.? Neutron therapy is best used in the treatment of certain tumor that exhibit a resistance to standard low
LET radiotherapy -- a small niche, but it remains a very important treatment option for small number of
patients for whom it appears to be better than tradition forms of treatment.
? Examples.
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o Patients with inoperable or recurrent salivary gland malignant tumors or in high risk situations wherethere has been an incomplete surgical extirpation or
o Where inoperable or incompletely resected sarcomas of bone, cartilage and soft tissue or locally
advanced prostate cancers particularly those that are not hormonally responsive have been found.
o May also be beneficial in metastases from melanoma & renal cell carcinoma.
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Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT)? Pure beams of very low energy neutrons do not directly deposit much energy in tissue. The basic idea is to
selectively attach a nuclide with a large cross section for capturing thermal neutrons [eg boron 40(10B) or
gadolinium ? 157 (157Gd)] to the cancer cells.
? The nucleide then undergoes a nuclear reaction with the localized release of substantial amount of energy
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and kills the tagged cancer cells but does not damage the surrounding untagged normal cells.? At present moderated neutron beams from nuclear reactors are used but there is ongoing work in
developing high current particle accelerator to produce low energy thermal or epithermal beams for BNCT.
Californium ? 252 (252CF) Neutron Brachytherapy
? Beneficial for tumors in which hypoxia is thought to be a factor in limiting tumor control with standard
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treatment.METHODS FOR ORGAN PRESERVATION
QUART Technique
Breast
Intra operative Brachytherapy
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Soft tissue sarcomasStereotactic radiosurgery
Small brain tumors
Chemo irradiation
Bladder cancer
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Concurrent chemotherapyAnal cancer
Plaque therapy
Uveal melanoma
External radiotherapy
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Retinoblastoma & laryngeal cancersExternal radiotherapy/ brachytherapy
Prostate, head & neck, gynecological cancers
RADIOSENSITIVITY
Very high
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HighIntermediate
Low
Bone marrow (most),
Skin, growing muscles, bones, Brain,
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Adult bone, AdultPancreas,
Testes & ovary,
spinal cord, Pituitary, thyroid ,
cartilage, Oral
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UterusGrowing cartilage/
salivary gland, Stomach, small
mucosa,
Vagina,
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growth plate/intestine, intestine, colon, rectum,
Oesophagus Urinary
Adrenals
epiphysis, Breast, Lens
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Liver, lung, heart, kidney, corneabladder
M/C affected ? skin (more commonly moist areas)
Most common skin manifestation- Erythema
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Most sensitive blood cell ? lymphocyteMost resistant blood tissue- platelets
Most sensitive body tissue- bone marrow
Most resistant body tissue- CNS
Most sensitive cell in CNS- neuron
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Most sensitive CNS part ? mid brain, medulla, spinal cordMost sensitive abdominal organ- kidney
Most sensitive hormone: growth hormone
Most sensitive mucosa ? intestinal mucosa
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RADOSENSITIVITY OF TUMOURS:High
Moderate
Relatively Resistant
Highly resistant
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Ewing's sarcomaNasopharyngeal Ca
Renal cell Ca
Hepatoma
Seminoma
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Dysgerminoma, Teratoma &Rectal / colon Ca
Pancreatic Ca
Lymphoma
Ovarian Ca
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Ca CervixOsteosarcoma
Wilm's tumor
Medulloblastoma
Melanoma
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Multiple myelomaSmall cell Ca lung
Ca. breast
Basal cell Ca
MOST RADIOSENSITIVE TUMORS
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? Ovarian tumor: Dysgerminoma > Teratoma? Brain tumor: Medulloblastoma
? Testicular tumor: Seminoma
? Lung tumor: small cell CA
? Kidney tumor: Wilm's tumor
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? Bone tumor: Ewing's Sarcoma & multiple myelomaRADIOSENSITIZERS
RADIOPROTECTIVE
RADIATION
AGENTS
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POTENTIATOR? Anti-cancer drugs: Cisplatin , 5-FU, Hydroxyurea
? Amifostine
? Doxorubicin
Vincristine, Bleomycin
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? Sodium butyrate? Dactinomycin
? Metronidazole, Misonidazole, Etanidazole,
? IL-1
Pimonidazole
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? GM-CSF? Hyperbaric O2 (Most potent) (not -
cyclophosphamide)
? Amifostine reduces cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity & also reduces xerostomia in patient with head & neck
Ca.
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? Sodium butyrate when given topically improves the symptoms of radiation proctitis.RADIO IODINE THERAPY IN THYROID CANCER
? Well differentiated thyroid cancer still incorporates radio iodine, but less efficiently than normal tissue.
? Indication- For tumor that takes up iodine, I131 treatment can reduce or eliminate residual disease.
? Thyroid ablation + I133-Treatment in:
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oLarge papillary tumor
o
Lymph node involvement
o
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FCTo
Evidence of metastasis
WILM'S TUMOUR
? The postoperative radiotherapy in Wilm's tumour should be started within 10 days of surgery.
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? Delay in starting RT beyond 10 days leads to tumour cell repopulation and increase in relapse rate.? Recommended dose: 1.2 to 1.5 Gy per fraction
? Indications of RT in Wilm's tumour are:
Stage II, Ill, IV with unfavorable histology (UH)
Stage III & IV with favorable histology (FH)
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Metastatic diseaseClear cell sarcoma of kidney in all stages.
MEDULLOBLASTOMAS
? Most common malignant brain tumor of childhood, approximately 20% of all primary CNS tumors among
children.
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? Arise from granule cell progenitors or from multipotent progenitors from the ventricular zone.? Associated syndromes: Gorlin syndrome, Turcot's syndrome and familial adenomatous polyposis.
? Histology: highly cellular tumors with abundant dark staining, round nuclei, and rosette formation (Homer-
Wright rosettes).
? Features: headache, ataxia, and signs of brainstem involvement.
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? MRI: densely enhancing tumors in the posterior fossa, sometimes associated with hydrocephalus.? Seeding of the CSF is common.
? Treatment: maximal surgical resection, craniospinal irradiation, and chemotherapy with agents such as
cisplatin, lomustine, cyclophosphamide, and vincristine.
BONE SECONDARIES
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Ca. Prostate produce mainly osteoblastic (Osteosclerotic) secondaries.? Mostly blastic: Bladder, bowel, breast, bronchial, Carcinoid, lymphoma & Prostate [4 Bees Can lick Pollen
? Usually lytic but frequently blastic: Breast
Invariably lytic: Kidney/Thyroid
WEDGE ANGLE
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"The angle which the 50 per cent isodose curve makes with the normal to the axis or "the angle through which the50 per cent isodose curve has been turned at the central axis"
Internal Contaminant Radionuclides: Properties and Treatment
Isotope
Common Usage
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ExposureMode of
Focal
Treatment
Type
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Contamination Accumulation inManganese
Reactors, research External,
N/A
Liver
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N/Alaboratories
internal
Cobalt
Medical
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External,Lungs
Liver
Gastric lavage,
radiotherapy
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internalpurgatives;
devices,
penicillamine in
commercial food
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severe casesirradiators
Strontium
Fission product of
Internal
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Moderate GIBones--similar
Strontium, calcium,
uranium
tract
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to calciumammonium chloride
Molybdenum Hospitals--scans
External,
N/A
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KidneysN/A
internal
Technetium
Hospitals--scans
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External,IV
Kidneys, total
Potassium perchlorate
internal
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administrationbody
to reduce thyroid dose
Cesium
Medical
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External,Lungs, GI tract,
Renal excretion
Ion-exchange resins,
radiotherapy
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internalwounds,
Prussian blue
devices
follows
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potassiumGadolinium
Hospitals
External,
N/A
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N/AN/A
internal
Iridium
Commercial
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External,N/A
Spleen
N/A
radiography
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internalRadium
Instrument
External,
GI tract
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BonesMgSO4 lavage,
illumination,
internal
ammonium chloride,
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industrialcalcium alginates
applications, old
medical
equipment,
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former SovietUnion military
equipment
Tritium
Luminescent gun
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InternalInhalation, GI
Total body
Dilution with
sights, muzzle-
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tract, woundscontrolled water
velocity detectors,
intake, diuretics
nuclear weapons
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Iodine-131Reactor accidents, Internal
Inhalation, GI
Thyroid
Potassium/sodium
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thyroid ablatorstract, wounds
iodide,
propylthiouracil,
methimazole
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UraniumDepleted
Internal
GI tract
Kidneys, bones
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NaHCO3, chelationuranium, natural
with EDTA
uranium, fuel
rods, weapons-
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grade materialPlutonium
Produced from
Internal
Limited lung
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Lungs, bones,Chelating with DTPA
uranium in
absorption,
bone marrow,
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or EDTAreactors, nuclear
high retention
liver, gonads
weapons
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AmericiumSmoke detectors,
Internal
Inhalation, skin Lungs, liver,
Chelating with DTPA
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nuclear weaponwounds
bones, bone
or EDTA
detonation fallout
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marrowPolonium
Calibration source
Internal
Inhalation,
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Spleen, kidneysLavage, dimercaprol
wounds
Thorium
Calibration source
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InternalN/A
N/A
N/A
Phosphorus
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ResearchInternal
Inhalation, GI
Bones, bone
Lavage, aluminum
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laboratories,tract, wounds
marrow, rapidly
hydroxide, phosphate
medical facilities
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replicating cellsAbbreviations : DTPA, diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid; EDTA, ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid
MANAGEMENT PROTOCOL OF RADIATION INJURY
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