Download MBBS Surgery Presentations 23 Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease Lecture Notes

Download MBBS (Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery) 1st Year, 2nd Year, 3rd Year and Final year Surgery 23 Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease PPT-Powerpoint Presentations and lecture notes


Gastroesophageal reflux

disease

GERD

? Defined as troublesome symptoms or complications that result from

the reflux of gastric contents into the esophagus or beyond into the

oral cavity or lung.

? Troublesome is defined by consensus as

? mild symptoms that occur at least 2 times per week or

? moderate to severe symptoms at least once per week.

? The pathogenesis is multifactorial.
GERD...

? Caused by abnormal function of the lower esophageal sphincter .

? The most frequent abnormality is

? an increase in transient lower esophageal sphincter relaxations (TLESR),

without an antecedent swallow that results in reflux of gastric contents into

the esophagus.

? The LES can be identified with esophageal manometry.

LES - made up of four anatomic structures:

1. The intrinsic musculature of the distal esophagus

? Is in a state of tonic contraction.

? Within 500 milliseconds of the initiation of a swallow, these muscle fibers

relax to allow passage of liquid or food into the stomach, and then they

return to a state of tonic contraction.
LES...

2. Sling fibers of the gastric

cardia

? are oriented diagonally from the

cardia-fundus junction to the

lesser curve of the stomach.

? the sling fibers contribute

significantly to the high-pressure

zone of the LES.

LES....

3. The crura of the diaphragm

? surround the esophagus as it passes through the esophageal hiatus.

? During inspiration, when intrathoracic pressure decreases relative to intra-

abdominal pressure,

? the anteroposterior diameter of the crural opening is decreased,

? compressing the esophagus and increasing the measured pressure at the LES.
LES...

4. Gastroesophageal junction

? is firmly anchored in the abdominal cavity,

? increased intra-abdominal pressure is transmitted to the GEJ, which increases

the pressure on the distal esophagus

? prevents spontaneous reflux of gastric contents.

? Gastroesophageal reflux (GER) occurs when intra-gastric pressure is

greater than the high-pressure zone of the distal esophagus.

? Conditions:

1. LES resting pressure is too low (i.e., hypotensive LES)

2. LES relaxes in the absence of peristaltic contraction of the esophagus (i.e.,

spontaneous LES relaxation).

? Hypotensive LES is frequently associated with hiatal hernia because of

displacement of the GEJ into the posterior mediastinum.
Hiatal hernias ?

Four types (I to IV).
1. Type I hiatal hernia-
? also called a sliding hiatal hernia,
? most common type.
? GEJ migrates cephalad into the

posterior mediastinum.

? This occurs because of laxity of

the

phreno-esophageal

membrane.

Hiatal hernia...

? Type II is known as a rolling hernia.

? A type I hernia occurs when the GEJ

is anchored in the abdomen, and the

gastric fundus migrates into the

mediastinum through the hiatal defect.

? Hiatal hernia types I to IV, also

referred to as PEH,

? are frequently associated with

gastroesophageal

obstructive

symptoms

? (e.g., dysphagia, early satiety, and

epigastric pain).
Hiatal hernia...

? Type I I is referred to as a mixed

hernia.

? Characterized by both the GEJ

and fundus located in the

mediastinum.

type IV hiatal hernia

? occurs when any visceral structure (e.g., colon, spleen, pancreas, or

small bowel) migrates cephalad to the esophageal hiatus and is

located in the mediastinum.
Symptoms ..
Mechanism of extra-esophageal symptoms of

GERD
1. Proximal esophageal reflux and micro-aspiration of gastroduodenal

contents cause direct caustic injury to the larynx and lower

respiratory tract; this is the most common mechanism.

2. Distal esophageal acid exposure triggers a vagal nerve reflex that

results in bronchospasm and cough. This mechanism is due to the

common vagal innervation of the trachea and esophagus.
Preoperative diagnostic evaluation

? Four diagnostic tests are useful to establish the diagnosis of GERD and

to identify abnormalities in gastroesophageal anatomy and function.

1. Ambulatory pH and Impedance Monitoring
2. Esophageal Manometry
3. Esophagogastroduodenoscopy
4. Barium Esophagram

1. Ambulatory pH and Impedance Monitoring

? Ambulatory pH monitoring quantifies distal esophageal acid

exposure and is the "gold standard" test to diagnose GERD.

? A 24-hour pH monitoring is conducted with a thin catheter that is

passed into the esophagus .

? Catheter has a dual-probe pH catheter, which contains two solid-state

electrodes that are spaced 10 cm apart and detect fluctuations in pH

between 2 and 7.

? distal electrode must be placed 5 cm proximal to the LES;
? the location of the LES is identified on esophageal manometry
Impedance Monitoring....

? Esophageal impedance monitoring identifies episodes of nonacid reflux.
? Similar to 24-hour pH monitoring, esophageal impedance is performed

with a thin, flexible catheter placed into the esophagus.

? Impedance catheters use electrodes placed at 1-cm intervals to detect

changes in the resistance to flow of an electrical current (i.e., impedance).

? Impedance increases in the presence of air and decreases in the presence

of a liquid bolus.

? Therefore, this technology can detect both gas and liquid movement in the

esophagus.

? Combined impedance-pH monitoring has been

shown to identify reflux episodes with greater

sensitivity than pH testing alone
2. Esophageal Manometry

? Esophageal manometry is the most effective way to assess function

of the esophageal body and the LES.

? High-resolution esophageal manometry gathers data using a 32-

channel flexible catheter with pressure sensing devices arranged at 1-

cm intervals.

? Study is conducted in approximately 15 minutes, during which time

the patient performs 10 swallows.

? Esophageal manometry can exclude achalasia and identify patients

with ineffective esophageal body peristalsis.

time is on the x-axis,

esophageal length is on the y-axis,

and pressure is represented by a color scale
? Esophageal manometry also measures the

? LES resting pressure and

? assesses the LES for appropriate relaxation with deglutition.

? Because the LES is the major barrier to GER, a defective LES is

common in patients with GERD.

3. Esophagogastroduodenoscopy

? The esophagus should be examined for evidence of mucosal injury

due to GER, including

? ulcerations, peptic strictures, and Barrett esophagus.

? Both peptic strictures and esophagitis can be considered

pathognomonic for GERD.


4. Barium Esophagram

? Provides a detailed anatomic

evaluation of the esophagus and

stomach that is useful during

preoperative evaluation of patients

with GERD.

? The presence, size, and anatomic

characteristics of a hiatal hernia or

PEH can be evaluated.

? Other condition that can be

identified- esophageal diverticula,

tumors,

peptic

strictures,

achalasia,

dysmotility,

and

gastroparesis.

Additional preoperative evaluation

1. Dysphagia
? In patients with GERD, the most common cause of dysphagia is a

reflux-associated inflammatory process of the esophageal wall.

? This inflammation can be manifested as a Schatzki ring, a diffuse

distal esophageal inflammation, or a peptic stricture.

? peptic strictures are pathognomonic for long-standing reflux and

develop from the chronic mucosal inflammation that occurs with

GERD.

? When strictures result in significant dysphagia, patients can

experience weight loss and protein-calorie malnutrition.
Obesity

? is a significant risk factor for the development of GERD.
? Compared with patients of normal weight, obese patients have

? increased intra-abdominal pressure,

? decreased LES pressure, and

? more frequent transient LES relaxations.

Barrett Esophagus

? Based on endoscopic measurements, it can be classified into

1. long segment (3 cm) and

2. short segment (<3 cm).

? If Barrett esophagus is suspected on the basis of endoscopic

appearance of the esophageal mucosa, multiple biopsy specimens

should be taken to histologically establish the diagnosis and to

determine the presence of dysplasia.

? When dysplasia is present, there is an increased risk for development

of adenocarcinoma.
Treatment of Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease

? Medical Management :

? For patients who present with typical symptoms of GERD, an 8-week

course of PPI therapy is recommended

Surgical Management

? For patients who exhibit

? elevated distal esophageal acid exposure and

? persistent typical GERD symptoms despite maximal medical therapy,

? antireflux surgery should be strongly considered.

? Antireflux operations include
? partial posterior (180- and 270-degree)- Toupet fundoplication
? partial anterior (90- and 180-degree)- Dor fundoplication
? 360-degree esophagogastric fundoplications- Nissen fundoplication.
Failed Antireflux Surgery

? The most common symptoms of failed LARS are

? typical symptoms of GERD (i.e., heartburn, regurgitation, and water brash

sensation) and dysphagia.

? All patients who present with recurrent or persistent symptoms of

GERD should be evaluated with esophageal manometry and

ambulatory pH study.

? If the pH study demonstrates elevated distal esophageal acid

exposure,

? an esophagram and

? upper endoscopy should be performed.
Failed Antireflux Surgery....

? Once the diagnosis of persistent or recurrent GERD is made, PPI

therapy should be instituted.

? Most of these patients experience resolution of their symptoms with

resumption of PPI therapy.

? If failure of medical therapy,

? reoperation should be performed.

This post was last modified on 08 April 2022