Download MBA HRM 4th Semester Human Resource Information System Notes

Download MBA HRM (Human Resource Management) (Master of Business Administration) 4th Semester Human Resource Information System Notes

Human Resource Information system

UNIT:1



Introduction: Data & Information needs for HR Manager; Sources of Data; Role

of ITES in HRM; IT for HR Managers; Concept, Structure, & Mechanics of

HRIS; Programming Dimensions & HR Manager with no technology

background; Survey of software packages for Human Resource Information

System including ERP Software such as SAP, Oracles Financials and Ramco`s

Marshal [only data input, output & screens];



Learning Objectives:



After reading this chapter, you should be able to understand

The meaning and definition of HRIS
The importance of HRIS
Data and information needs for HR manager
Sources of data
Concept structure and mechanics of data
Survey of software packages for HRIS
Basic knowledge of ERP software such as SAP, Oracles Financials and

Ramco`s MArshal














Introduction

Many well-known examples of the use of information technology for

competitive advantage involve systems that link an organization to suppliers,

distribution channels, or customers. In general, these systems use information or

processing capabilities in one organization to improve the performance of

another or to improve relationships among organizations. Declining costs of

capturing and using information have joined with increasing competitive

pressures to spur numerous innovations in use of information to create value.

The ideas do not constitute a procedure leading inexorably to competitive

advantage. However, they have been of value when combined with an

appreciation of the competitive dynamics of specific industries and a grasp of

the power of information.

Results from "The Gap Between IT and Strategic HR in the UK",(June 2006) a

study by talent management solutions company Taleo, show a significant

disconnect between HR's strategic functions, including talent acquisition and

workforce planning, and IT ability to support these business initiatives.

The survey of 100 senior HR managers, all in organizations employing more

than a thousand people, found that only a quarter thought that strategic

functions such as workforce planning, leadership development and performance

management were well supported by their IT systems. Only a third felt

confident in systems support for recruitment and employee progression. Other

findings included:

Current technology systems were out-of-date. Over half the respondents

(55%) felt that more sophisticated technology systems and processes

were needed to support recruitment and development.
IT focused on lower-level, administrative functions. Respondents said

that payroll and employee administration (68%) and evaluation and

management reporting (53%) were adequately supported by IT.

However, more strategic HR initiatives such as performance

management (28%), leadership development and planning (25%) and

strategic workforce planning (25%) were not well supported.

Inadequate data and technology systems obstructed workforce

management. Just 29% of respondents felt that they had sufficient

systems in place to gain a clear picture of existing employee skills.

The HR function was striving to become more strategic. 63% of

respondents cited talent management (including recruitment) as a

significant priority in the year ahead.

Taleo Research Vice President, Alice Snell said:

"The gap between the support of administrative functions and strategic HR

responsibilities needs to be addressed in order for HR directors to deliver results

to the Board. When HR directors can assess the workforce changes needed by

the business, acquire and develop the talent needed to optimise the workforce,

and then measure the results, their true value can be realised."

"Findings of this study clearly show that HR is evolving to play a more strategic

role in supporting fundamental business objectives, but the systems being used

by HR functions are not keeping up," added Neil Hudspith, Senior Vice

President, International Operations, Taleo. "It's clear that talent management

and other strategic initiatives are being recognised as essential functions by

ambitious companies that want to retain and recruit the best people, but

organisations need to arm their HR directors with the tools and technology
needed to support this strategy. The right HR technology is a critical element of

any HR strategy moving forward."



Meaning and Definition of HRIS



Human Resources Information System, is a system that lets you keep track of

all your employees and information about them. It is usually done in a database

or, more often, in a series of inter-related databases.

These systems include the employee name and contact information and all or

some of the following:



department,

job title,

grade,

salary,

salary history,

position history,

supervisor,

training completed,

special qualifications,

ethnicity,

date of birth,

disabilities,

veterans status,

visa status,

benefits selected,

and more.
Any HRIS include reporting capabilities. Some systems track applicants before

they become employees and some are interfaced to payroll or other financial

systems. An HRIS is a management system designed specifically to provide

managers with information to make HR decisions

You notice that this is not an HR system...it is a management system and

is used specifically to support management decision making .



The need for this kind of information has increased in the last few years,

especially in large and/or diverse companies, where decision making has

been moved to lower levels



And large companies generally have the advantage when it comes to

HRIS`s...the cost to develop an HRIS for 200 people is usually close to

that for 2000 people...so it is a better investment for large

companies...larger companies tend to have systems that have a fair

degree of customization



Therefore, HRIS can be defined in simple words as given below.

Human Resource Management Systems (HRMS, EHRMS), Human

Resource Information Systems (HRIS), HR Technology or also called HR

modules, shape an intersection in between human resource management

(HRM) and information technology. It merges HRM as a discipline and in

particular its basic HR activities and processes with the information
technology field, whereas the planning and programming of data

processing systems evolved into standardised routines and packages of

enterprise resource planning (ERP) software. On the whole, these ERP

systems have their origin on software that integrates information from

different applications into one universal database. The linkage of its

financial and human resource modules through one database is the most

important distinction to the individually and proprietary developed

predecessors, which makes this software application both rigid and flexible.

Advantages of HRIS

An HRIS can reduce the amount of paperwork and manual record

keeping

It retrieves information quickly and accurately

It allows quick analysis of HR issues



Most HRIS Contain:

Personal history - name, date of birth, sex

Work history - salary, first day worked, employment status, positions in

the organization, appraisal data and hopefully, pre-organizational

information

Training and development completed, both internally and externally

Career plans including mobility

Skills inventory - skills, education, competencies...look for transferable

skills


The pressure is on for proactive HR innovations that contribute directly to the

bottom-line or improve employee morale and efficiency. Ajuwon (2002) points

out that the typical HR professional gets involved with one step in many

different flows of work. Very often the involvement of HR has no purpose

except to validate the process in some way and acts as an interruption to the

flow of work. In other words, the HR function is a 'gatekeeper for information

that`s been deemed too highly classified for the data owner.'



So HR is not actually making a measurable contribution - in fact, the opposite.

HR involvement creates a queue or delay in the process. We should ask if the

HR involvement is really necessary. Once upon a time the HR database had an

'all-or-nothing' quality - probably because it was paper-based. But now

technology allows controlled access to various portions of the database. So an

employee can safely amend his or her own address or bank account details,

while the ability to change certain appraisal details might be confined to the line

manager. In either case, there is no reason for HR to be involved. HR should

move on from the role of intermediary.



Not surprisingly, the use of employee self-service systems for records,

information, payroll and other functions is becoming increasingly common.

Libraries of forms can be kept online to be downloaded as and when required.

Systems can be enhanced to include streaming video and other new software

providing wide access to corporate videos, training, etc. Obviously, e-mail

announcements and newsletters can also be used to alert employees to new

developments or urgent requests.
Ajuwon (2002) argues that HR should be proactive in the process and highlights

three different perspectives for action:

* The process perspective - getting the fundamental building blocks (people

processes) right and ensuring their relevance at all times. This demands close

and detailed knowledge of HR processes and a commitment to improvement

and efficiency. HR professionals need to understand their own objectives and

the relationship with business strategy.

* The event perspective - a focus on providing a framework for knowledge

management. In other words, capturing the experience and information

available in that harnesses the organisation and making it available to

individuals.

* The cultural perspective - acknowledging that HR has a 'pivotal role in the

proactive engagement of the entire organisation in a changing climate.



During the 1990s the business process re-engineering approach resulted in many

organizations taking a 'root and branch' look at HR and other processes.

Subsequent reorganizations may have produced fresh, streamlined processes but

often they became inappropriate or inefficient as circumstances changed. It is

not enough to design a corporate human resource strategy or acquire a piece of

technology. There has to be some way of ensuring effective operational

delivery. A more fluid, constantly changing methodology is required. Ajuwon

contends that we have the means:

"It`s more than innovating and/or streamlining your HR processes; or building

an HR portal or introducing a culture change programme.
"It`s about weaving together all three in a way that sustains change, engages the

entire organization and deploys the organization`s knowledge assets to gain

competitive advantage and deliver profitability, even in times of economic

downturn."

Human resource systems can differ widely. They may be:

* Intranets using web-type methods but operating purely within one

organization or location.



* Extranets - encompassing two or more organizations.



* Portals - offering links to internal information and services but also accessing

the worldwide web.

Advantages

-

Familiarity

(looking

like

web

pages)

-

Attractiveness

(colourful,

clearly

laid

out,

graphics)

-

Integration (linking different HR systems such as basic personnel

records, employee handbooks, terms and conditions, contracts, various

entitlements

and

payroll)

-

Allowing employees and managers to enter, check and amend controlled

ranges

of

personal

and

other

information.

-

Eliminating printing, enveloping and mailing of personnel and other

employee

information

-

Reducing need for telephone handling of routine enquiries by HR staff.
Basic system requirements

1. Desktop PCs for accessing and inputting information locally. Standard

browsers are used to access information (e.g. Netscape or Internet Explorer).

2. Organization-wide server. In a small company this need be nothing more than

a PC as well. The server must have an intranet server software package installed

(Microsoft Internet Information Server, or Netscape Communications Server are

examples.)

3. Server-side software such as HTML, Java, Javascript, Perl.

4. Intranet communications protocol running on both PCs and the server.

5. Relational database/Information processing software for records, payroll, etc.

If data is to be accessed then the procedure is made slightly more complicated

with the need for CGI scripts and database server software on the server.

6. Basic documents such as policy manuals typically loaded in HTML - but

formats such as Adobe Acrobat PDF are also an alternative.

Cost-benefit analysis

Difficult to quantify because the greatest return is in improved morale.

Robert Musacchio, CIO with the American Medical Association in Chicago is

quoted as having installed between 50-60 intranet applications for 1400

employees at $10,000 to $20,000 per application.


"Musacchio says a self-service employee-benefits site, which provides

information on benefits and lets employees pick health-care, day-care, and

retirement investment options, was built for "almost six figures." Musacchio

figures it provided a 40% return on investment, based on the time saved by

human resource managers who don't have to answer employees' questions about

these topics because they're answered by the application".('Intranet ROI: Leap

Of Faith',( Information Week Online, May 24 1999.)



Fletcher argues that businesses have to adopt a 'Human Capital Management'

approach to make the most of any organization's greatest asset: the skills,

knowledge and experience of its staff. She describes how, in the 1990s, most

large businesses introduced 'Human Resources Information Systems' (HRIS)

and that, in combination with re-engineering (the buzzword of the time), this

enabled them to "replace antiquated, time-consuming personnel processes with

automation."

Walker (Walker, A.J. 'Best Practices in HR Technology' in Web-Based Human

Resources, McGraw Hill, 2001) states that if HR technology is to be considered

successful, it must achieve the following objectives: It must provide the user

with relevant information and data, answer questions, and inspire new insights

and learning.

Efficiency and effectiveness

HRIS must be capable of changing the work performed by the Human

Resources personnel by dramatically improving their level of service, allowing

more time for work of higher value, and reducing their costs.
But, despite extensive implementation of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)

projects, Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS), and HR service centres

costing millions of dollars, Walker concludes that few organizations have been

entirely happy with the results. Why is this?

Many systems have been implemented by cutting HR staff, outsourcing and

imposing technology on what was left. Arguably this approach should, at least,

have cut costs. But Walker argues that survey results demonstrate that overall

HR departments have actually increased their staffing levels over the past

decade to do the same work. Moreover he considers that:

"Most of the work that the HR staff does on a day-to-day basis, such as staffing,

employee relations, compensation, training, employee development, and

benefits, unfortunately, remains relatively untouched and unimproved from a

delivery standpoint."

Fletcher explores the issue of effectiveness in a very telling paragraph (page 15)

in which she states that: "Executives struggle with what to measure and how to

clearly tie employee metrics to business performance." Not only are they

pressured by the vast costs of Human Capital Management (payroll, etc.) but

they also have to report to analysts "whose valuations consist partly of

measuring such intangible assets as the corporate leadership's team to execute

on strategy or the ability of the business to attract and retain skilled talent."

She concludes that:

Executives are not sure about the kind of data that would prove to

analysts that their employees are delivering better and creating more

value than their competitors.
Analysts are struggling to make sense of intangibles, often falling back

on a 'revenue per employee' metric which does not tell the whole story.

The HR Function

The business process should be re-engineering the HR function first, then E-

engineering the HR work. He suggests the formation of re-engineering teams of

providers, customers and users to examine the whole range of HR activities -

including those which are not being done at present. The end product is a set of

processes organized into broad groupings such as resourcing, compensation or

training and development. These processes should then be examined by the re-

engineering team and redesigned to:

Be better aligned with organizational goals.

Streamlined so as to be cost-effective in comparison with the 'best in

class'.

Have a better integration with other processes.

From this redesign comes the picture of a new HR function. What next? The

organization could be restructured and the tasks handed out existing or new

staff. But Walker argues that the most effective approach is to introduce new

technology to deal with the redesigned processes.

For HR to survive in this brave new world it needs to "possess a technology

acumen like never before." A tall order, one suspects, for many die-hard

personnel traditionalists. But if they do not demonstrate the ability to

recommend appropriate technology and control automated HR processes,

organizations will use other people for these tasks some replacements for

'traditional' HR executives may have no direct experience of human resource

management at all. Instead, they may have "led a line of business and have had
P&L responsibility, understand what it means to be accountable for delivering

business results."

Walker (Walker, A.J. 'Best Practices in HR Technology' in Web-Based Human

Resources, McGraw Hill, 2001) discusses a range of technologies available for

re-engineered HR processes, contending that they are all capable of dealing with

HR activities in a secure and confidential manner.



1. Workflow. Walker describes this as being like e-mail with a database and

built-in intelligence.' Essentially, a user accesses a range of employee records

(perhaps their own) through a computer terminal, keys in data such as a change

of address and submits the data electronically to the next person in the chain.

The system is configured so that only certain individuals are authorized for a

specific range of access or actions. The workflow chain is organized to ensure

that the most suitable person approves an action. For example, a bonus payment

would be authorized by a line manager's own manager. Also, the system can be

structured so that bonuses over a certain level can be monitored by a HR

specialist. The paths and actions are all specified in accordance with company

rules.



2. Manager self-service. Managers can have access to 'front-end' applications

on their desk tops in the form of HR portals. Typically, they are able to view a

range of personal details and aggregate information. They are also allowed to

change and input certain details and model the consequences on their budgets of

salary increases or bonus payments. More generally, policy manuals, plans and

strategies can be made available. Walker highlight the facility to 'push'
information requiring attention to managers - including those dreaded employee

performance appraisals.



3. Employee self-service. Similarly, employees can view company information,

change selected personal details, make benefit enquiries (pension plans, sick

pay entitlement), book leave and apply for training programmes. Walker makes

the point that 'portal technology will personalize this data further and "push"

relevant data to them as well.'



4. Interactive voice response (IVR). A low-tech method, using the push-button

control facility found in most modern telephones. Most of us are familiar with

automatic responses such as: "If your call is about vacancies in the accounts

department - press 3 followed by #" when we dial large organizations. The

system is restricted but easy to use and inexpensive in comparison to web-based

methods. It is suitable for job openings and training course details where

straightforward information can be recorded as simple scripts.

5. HR Service Centres. Walker notes that this has become one of the most

widely used solutions to re-engineered HR in large organizations. Such centres

centralize a number of HR processes and may deal with geographically

widespread users. For example, the Raleigh, North Carolina service center can

deal with all of IBM's North American current and former staff.

Operators or 'Agents' take enquiries by phone, e-mail or online that may already

have been filtered through interactive voice response scripts or desktop HR

systems. In effect, they deal with the relatively non-routine issues that cannot be
handled by basic technology. However, they do use recognisable Call Centre

techniques such as scripted protocols. The Agent can enter keywords or a

question into a knowledge database and bring up relevant information with

which to answer the caller's query. If that query is not covered by information in

the knowledge database it can be referred to a supervisor using workflow.

HR service centres also have a fax, e-mail and postal facility to send

information, confirmations, follow-up queries and printed brochures to users.

They are also monitored in the same way as conventional Call Centres and can

generate useful statistics on types and frequency of enquiries. Walker contends

that most reports show that organizations find HR service centres to be highly

cost-effective and provider faster and more consistent answers than traditional

HR departments.

6. Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS) and databases. According

to Walker (2001):

"The HRIS system is the primary transaction processor, editor, record-keeper,

and functional application system which lies at the heart of all computerized HR

work.It mains employee, organizational and HR plan data sufficient to support

most, if not all, of the HR functions depending on the modules installed.

It will also supply information to other systems and generate reports.

7. Stand-alone HR systems. A massive choice of applications available from

commercial vendors which can be linked to a HRIS. They include online

application forms, tests, appraisal databases, 360-degree performance

assessments and so on.
8. Data-Marts and Data-Warehouses. Sources of information, usually held as

relational databases which can be interrogated. Data-Marts normally hold data

from single sources, such as HR; Data-Warehouses amass information from

multiple sources.





DATA AND INFORMATION NEEDS FOR HR MANAGER

Collect Data

Assess the mission, vision, strategy, and culture of the organization, from

whatever written material there is in the company (check with the department or

person who handles public, customer, or shareholder relations).



Collect existing data such as:

Hiring statistics (acceptance rate, hiring rate, hiring projections)

Turnover

Compensation and benefits philosophy and practice

Exit interview summaries

Employee complaints (discrimination, harassment, safety, other)

Promotion and advancement practices and trends

Human Resources budget and expenditures



Where possible, compare the data collected with market data. This information

will provide you with a point of view for the next phase of the audit: the

interviews. If, during the interview, discrepancies arise between the data and the

interviewee's answer, ONE can explore the reasons for the discrepancy(s).


Conduct Interviews

The purpose of the interview is to collect input from the internal customer on

their Human Resources needs and how those needs are being met. Begin the

interview with top management. Next conduct interviews with a sample of

subordinate managers including first line management. The topics to discuss

during the interview include:



Perceptions of the company and its goals

Strengths and weaknesses of top management

Employee perceptions of the company and top management

Relations with subordinates

Support of career goals for self and employees

Major Human Resources issues

Which Human Resources functions work well

Which Human Resources functions need improvement



In addition they can provide indirect feedback. For example, the results may

indicate that different organizations have conflicting goals. Perhaps a

performance management system could correct this problem. Or perhaps

communication isn't flowing well in the organization, suggesting a need for

communication programs or some training and development.



Some of the information collected during the interviews will be sensitive.

Confidentiality must be respected. Get advanced approval from top

management on the questions you will ask during the interview phase.


Summarize the Results

Consolidate the information you collected. Compare the results with market

surveys. Determine which practices are good/popular/effective/competitive.

Determine which practices need improvement. Recommend specific

improvements referring to the results of both the Effectiveness audit and the

Regulatory compliance audit. Justify the recommendations. Determine how to

measure whether the improvements are successful.





Obtain Approval from senior Management

Present the preliminary results and recommendations to senior management

individually. Point out how these recommendations will support their needs.

Obtain their support, and then present the final results and recommendations to

the senior management staff for final approval.









Implement the Program

Consider implementing the program in part of the organization as a pilot

program. Monitor and measure success and seek to continuously improve

processes. Be prepared to modify the program if an organizational change

requires it.


SOURCES OF DATA



Absence of sufficient qualification required for the job puts extra efforts on the

HR department or the colleagues to train the new appointees. Many companies

do take the pain of training new recruits by conducting induction training and

other regular workshops. However, the best training one can get is on the job.

Some companies give so much importance to the 'training' part that it turns out

to be the best company for new comers to learn. A good training schedule is

important, but simultaneously, all other HR concerns are equally important.

Companies should learn to not just appoint and train people, but retain them

through smart ways.



Recruitment source:



DQ Channels asked members of the solutions provider community to rank the

best sources of recruitment. The best recruitment sources according to majority

of the respondents were 'Referrals'. Yes, referrals or word-of-mouth is no doubt

the best source of recruitment. This also saves a lot of time energy spent in

testing a new candidate's caliber. "There is an element of trust involved. When a

person is sent to us by a person known to us and who knows our requirement,

he or she is the best we can get," said one HR manager.



The next best source for recruitment is consulting agencies, job sites and print

advertisements in that order. Surprisingly, very few responded with 'Campus

recruitment' as an alternative source for getting people



ITES IN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT:


The people working in IT Enabled Services have a great amount of stress when

compared to other people and their nature of jobs. Nowadays the company`s

work on target basis so to reach the target the employees have to strive hard

therefore for the strain in their jobs the HR department have to think about

coping their stress by giving some



Recognition

Hike in the pay

Fringe benefits

Fun programs & some recreational activities.









IT FOR HR MANAGERS:



It is essential for a Human Resource Manager to have some knowledge on

information technology because everything nowadays is becoming

computerized and especially when it comes to human resource information

systems the HR manager has to be aware about the system well at least for the

sake of minor things like payroll, compensation, etc.



So information technology plays a vital role for any department & especially

HR Department in any organization.



CONCEPT,

STRUCTURE,

AND

MECHANICS

OF

HUMAN

RESOURCE INFORMATION SYSTEMS (HRIS)




Integrated HR Information Systems (HRIS) have a profound effect on firms that

implement them. Most often these firms are replacing several related systems,

such as a personnel database, payroll system and benefits system, with one

HRIS that does it all. Many people focus on the improved reporting and

processing that will be realized from the new system, and those are the reasons

most firms choose to implement a new HRIS. But what many people don`t

focus on is that the new HRIS will most likely affect the company much more

deeply ? it will challenge the operating structure and principles of all the HR-

related

departments.

An integrated HRIS results is a drastically different environment than a cluster

of related but separate systems. The core concept of a centralized data store

inherent with an HRIS demands integrated work processes for consistently

managing that store. The two attributes ? centralized data storage and integrated

work processes ? will affect the company in ways most managers don`t expect.



EVALUATING AND PREPARING FOR A NEW HRIS



Many companies go through a process of comparing and evaluating several

HRIS packages using a team of analysts or managers from the various

departments affected ? HR, Payroll, Benefits, Employee Relations, Training and

so on. As this team prepares its evaluation criteria and reviews HRIS features,

much is learned about the goals and values of the various departments. The HR

department is looking for improved reporting of employee data, Payroll is

concerned with the system`s paycheck calculations and regulatory reporting,

while Benefits may be looking for a more streamlined enrollment process. As

this team drives deeper into the selection criteria, the members learn more about
each other and may start to see the emergence of some really messy business

processes. It can be a bittersweet process.

The hiring process is a good example. As a person is recruited, hired and paid

each department may have its own specialized system and process for managing

the employee data. As the HRIS evaluation team discovers redundant

processing and data storage, its members start to see ways to make the process

more efficient by aligning their part of the hiring process with the requirements

of the other departments. The team members are excited to find a better way to

get the work done, but scared by the ramifications of closer ties to other

departments. They think: If we improve the efficiency of the process we won`t

need as many people in our department and we might lose control of some piece

of data that is critical to our business function.





As the team evaluates an HRIS software package, it begins to get a better grasp

on what the entire company`s business processes are, and therefore what the

company might require in an HRIS. The team will most likely find that none of

the packages are an exact fit and that substantial effort is required to modify or

integrate the chosen HRIS. Or if not enough due diligence and research have

been done, the team may be facing this effort and not be aware of it. This gap in

planning will show itself later in the implementation phase when the project

team realizes there are not enough resources ? time, people and money ? to

implement the HRIS.

Perhaps the most critical results of the HRIS evaluation process are that the

evaluation team set correct expectations for the project and gain executive

management commitment. With correct, or at least realistic expectations and an

executive management team that seriously supports the team`s efforts, an HRIS

implementation project has a much greater chance to succeed. Most often the
HRIS evaluation team members spend most of their efforts building selection

criteria and choosing an HRIS, instead of setting expectations and building

executive support.





THE HRIS IMPLEMENTATION PROJECT (Configuring the New

HRIS)



There are three primary activities in an HRIS implementation ? configuring the

HRIS for the firm`s business processes and policies, interfacing data with other

systems and converting historical data into the HRIS, and preparing the

organization for the new HRIS. An HRIS comes with built-in processes for

most HR activities, but firms will need to customize the system to process

according to their specific needs. For example, every HRIS supports the process

of benefits open enrollment, but the system does not come delivered with a

firm`s specific benefit providers and eligibility rules. Customizing the HRIS for

this typically does not involve programming; the common activity is to enter

specific data into control tables that then direct how the HRIS operates. The

customizing, or configuration tasks then become a process of understanding the

firm`s business processes well enough to encode that logic into the HRIS.



This mapping of business processes and policies into system control tables

requires people who understand both the business process and the HRIS ?

typically the existing IT support and HR business analysts. Due to the large

amount of work, the HRIS project team usually needs these analysts fully

dedicated to the project, requiring the home departments to fill the gaps in

their absence. Having partially dedicated team members may cause tension

since the team members have to maintain responsibilities at the home
department while also fulfilling responsibilities on the project team. Either way,

back-filling resources becomes a big issue if not planned for during the

evaluation stage. Firms may find that the internal resource people assigned to

the project do not have the skills or capabilities needed for the job. Sometimes

training can resolve this, but other times the people lack basic analytical skills

required for the implementation. One of the key requirements for a person to be

successful on an HRIS implementation project is that he/she have excellent

analysis skills. The most analytical people in HR and IT should be assigned to

the project, or else the company should rely on external resources (i.e.

contractors or consultants). The project can get done this way ? but the more an

implementation team relies on external resources the more difficult it will be for

the company to become self-sufficient in ongoing HRIS support, maintenance,

and operations.





Many HRIS implementations include, to one degree or another, business

process reengineering. As a firm documents, investigates, and discovers its true

business processes, it`s natural that the firm also take time to improve them, or

at least integrate the processes across departments. The integrated nature of

most HRIS packages drives this activity. When a process is reengineered or

integrated, once-independent departments become much more dependent on

each other. That dependency can increase tensions on the project team as

representatives from those departments learn to trust others to do their part of

the process. Or, once the project team members become comfortable with the

new processes they have designed, they may have a hard time selling those

changes back to their departments.




Most HRIS packages don`t handle exception processing very well. As new

business processes are designed, the project team customizes the HRIS around

those new processes. Users will most likely find that exception cases require

significant manual thought or labor to process ? since the exception does not fit

into the business process as implemented in the HRIS. HRIS project team

analysts will walk a fine line between generalization of the process to fit

exceptions vs. a more narrowed implementation of the process to enforce data

integrity and accurate application of HR policy. This is a great time to enforce

some standards and clean-up special deals ? but HR managers and

policymakers must be willing to support these efforts, and to help implement

them. Finally, as the project team analysts dig into the current business

processes, they may find that the HR users, and sometimes managers, don`t

really understand or know the processes well. Users may know what is done,

but not why it is done. Knowing the why part is critical to getting the most out

of your HRIS implementation. In most every HRIS there are two or three

technical methods of implementing any given requirement ? knowing why

something is done in a business process helps ensure the project team analysts

select the best method of implementing it in the HRIS.



Linking the New HRIS with Other Systems



Most HRIS project teams have a number of people assigned to converting

historical data from the existing HR databases into the new HRIS, as well as for

interfacing the new HRIS with other systems that rely on HR data. As this

group starts mapping historical data to the new system for conversion, most

often group members will find (particularly when combining data from several

existing systems to go into one HRIS) that the existing HR data contains a

significant amount of invalid, incomplete, or contradictory data. As the new
HRIS was configured for new, reengineered or streamlined business processes,

the existing employee data may not fit well into the new system. The new HRIS

will demand more complete and accurate employee data.





Making sense of these data conversion problems is a skill that falls to HR

analysts, not the programmers writing data-conversion routines. Conversion and

interfacing are not solely technical activities ? user consultation and input are

required. Many HRIS project teams discover these requirements too late, thus

increasing the demand for time from HR analysts on the project team ? time that

the analysts most likely do not have.





If the firm has a data warehouse, the new HRIS data will need to be mapped to

it. If the data model in the warehouse is based on the legacy HR database, the

two data models may not be compatible. A lot of effort can be spent mapping

the new HRIS to an existing data warehouse. Or if the HRIS vendor has its own

data warehouse application, the project team might be tempted to use it, but

they`ll still have to contend with converting existing historical HR data into the

new warehouse. Either way, HRIS project teams spend more effort than planned

on this issue ? the details can get very tedious and time consuming.



Replacing HR systems involves any area of the company that reads or relies on

employee data. New system implementation may highlight employee data

privacy issues, or increase the scope of interfacing once the project team

realizes just how many systems read employee data from the current HR-related

databases.


Preparing the Organization



Many times it is easier for project teams to focus on technical aspects of the

implementation, which is ineffective. For example, configuring the HRIS to

correctly assign resident tax codes based on the employee`s address is easier

than getting HR, benefits, payroll, and recruiting to buy into and implement a

reengineered hiring process. The HRIS project team must track progress not

only on the technical aspects of implementing the HRIS, but also on the softer

side of managing the organization as a whole to accept the new business

processes that come with the HRIS. Companies typically underestimate this

change-management effort. From the very beginning there must be a focus on

preparing the organization and the employees for the new HRIS. A new HRIS,

with more integrated work processes, tends to pull related departments together.

Some firms recognize this as they go through the implementation process, and

also implement a new organizational structure with the HRIS roll-out. For

example, HR and Payroll may have reported to separate areas of the company,

and parts of HR business processes were scattered throughout various

departments. But as a new HRIS is implemented, the previous organizations are

transformed to report to a single authority, and a shared-services group is

established to perform the integrated work processes that were once scattered.

This is a common, but often unexpected, result of HRIS implementations.



During the implementation phase, firms should also be determining what their

support model will look like ? what kind of organization will be required to

support this new HRIS? Those who study this task in detail will realize they

need cross-functional support teams ? containing programmers (ABAP),

configuration experts, and business analysts ? to successfully support the new

HRIS. But this integrated support team does not fit well into the vertical
departments in most companies today. Finding a way to implement this cross-

functional team is a critical success factor for the new HRIS` ongoing operation.

All of the items mentioned so far force HR managers to become involved in

what is usually perceived as an IT project. They may be accustomed to pushing

responsibility for such projects onto IT managers, but implementing an

integrated HRIS requires HR manager participation and active involvement in

scoping, implementation, cutover, resourcing and management.









LIVING WITH THE NEW HRIS (Changes in the HR User Community

)



An integrated HRIS leads to more integrated reporting of employee data, which

can lead to efforts that benefit the company. Better reporting of employee costs,

skills and requirements, time-keeping and recording, etc. give senior managers

information that can be used to improve the application of HR policy or to cut

costs (i.e. reducing time-card fraud, highlighting wasteful compensation

practices, etc.). Most integrated HRIS packages are very sophisticated in the

functionality and processes they offer. Compared to legacy, or screen-

based/code-based systems, the new HRIS requires a more analytical user. The

user cannot simply be trained to put certain codes into certain fields -- he/she

must know the business process and how it relates to the HRIS. In most

companies, a certain portion of users will be able to make this jump to

analytical thinking; others will not. The resulting shakeout has to happen, and

it is most often painful ? either for the employees themselves or for the HRIS

support organization.
If a more centralized, integrated HR organization doesn`t surface during the

implementation period, the organization will tend to evolve in that direction. An

integrated, centralized HRIS tends to pull user departments together. Using

integrated work processes across departments that do not operate under a

common authority will highlight data and process ownership issues. These

issues in turn get pushed up to HR managers or executive management.

Eventually, these managers resolve the issues by increasing the integration of

the departments to match the processes. Either way it happens ? at

implementation or via evolution -- this level of organizational change is always

difficult.



Supporting the HRIS



IT support analysts may be accustomed to, and only skilled for, flat-file

processing techniques. Most HRIS packages rely on relational data models,

higher-level programming languages, and interactive data management ?

presenting technical requirements for which some IT analysts may not be ready.

The new HRIS may have proprietary languages or facilities, requiring new IT

skills. Often these skills will be in high demand, driving a premium rate of pay.

Internal resources may opt to leave the company for the higher pay, or they may

demand higher pay at the company. The higher pay might be outside the HR

guidelines for fair salary. The resulting dilemma can create retention problems.

HR users ? the analysts in HR, payroll and benefits ? must take a more active

role in ongoing support and system changes. Since business rules are often

coded into the HRIS instead of resting in manual processes, the business

analysts are necessarily drawn into this activity. Some firms may push this

business rule knowledge to their IT support analysts, or rely on consultants

who help with the implementation. Although either of those scenarios can work,
HR business analysts and managers have the most to lose if the HRIS does not

process transactions correctly. Placing HR analysts in system support and

change roles will help ensure that the HRIS processes transactions correctly.

Some companies depend too much on consulting firms or contractors to

perform an implementation. Many times this happens because the firm can pay

a consultant to do precisely what the firm wants to do, which is often easier than

getting internal resources to do the same thing. It takes some of the pain out of

change management. This can lead to a continued dependence on external

resources and might be acceptable for firms that have historically relied on

external resources. For others it may generate substantial internal conflict in the

way of higher IT budgets or continued presence of non-employees in the HRIS

support organization.



RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SUCCESS



Given all the things that often do go wrong with HRIS implementations, what

can be done to ensure a smooth transition? There is no one solution, no grand

secret for avoiding all the problems. As with most successful efforts, a

successful HRIS implementation requires participation and commitment from

all areas of the firm. The first area from which to gain commitment is the firm`s

executive management ? the sponsors of the project. Given the level of change

such a project will create, there will be areas that resist the implementation.

Support from executive management is invaluable for making sure new

business processes are implemented effectively, for funding the project, and for

ensuring appropriate staffing on the project team. Without this support, the

payoff of the new HRIS will most likely be compromised, and will cause

disruptions in employee service.
The executive managers should appoint a steering committee containing

stakeholders from all areas affected by the HRIS (payroll, benefits, HR, IT,

employee relations, etc). This group should contain members who can ensure

that their line managers have the necessary directives and responsibilities for

making the HRIS operational. The steering committee should take an active role

in resolving broad issues and taking corrective actions if the project gets off

course. One of the most important roles of the steering committee is that of

winning the HR managers. The steering committee needs to ensure that

managers fully understand the impact of a new HRIS system, that they are

involved in the implementation, and that they support the project with a positive

attitude towards change. This will not only set an example and guideline for

each committee member`s department, but also prepare the ground for dealing

with change-management issues. The steering committee should be responsible

for appointing a project manager or project management team, as well as

assuring that the project is appropriately staffed. The project manager should

carry out team-building exercises for employees who will have to work

together, since many people who will be assigned to the team may not have

experience operating in such an environment. The HR analysts and the technical

analysts must learn how to work together to solve issues neither group can solve

alone ? such as data conversion and interfacing. HR analysts will become more

technical, and technical analysts will learn more about HR. The project

planning process needs to include not only the technical tasks but also the

processes and deadlines for change management tasks. The project manager can

get an indication of these issues early in the project by comparing the goals of

the different stakeholders involved and identifying all the inconsistencies.

For those HR analysts who are placed on the HRIS project team, their managers

need to be fully aware of the analyst roles in the project. Managers need to

review and possibly redefine the roles before, during and after the
implementation. New job descriptions may need to be prepared and managers

need to brief employees about any changes and additional responsibilities.

Managers also must start back-filling the positions left by the analysts to ensure

their departments still run smoothly and the analysts are not torn between

working in their departments vs. working on the HRIS project.

Not every person will be able to make the transition to a new HRIS. Certain

employees ? payroll clerks, benefits analysts, IT support, and even managers --

may not want anything to do with the new HRIS and the processes that come

with it. Instead of forcing them to make the transition, it is often wiser to place

them outside the HRIS-related organization in roles appropriate for their skills.

A transition plan needs to be constructed, and the steering committee must

accept the fact that there will be some turnover.

Likewise, employees who have demonstrated their interest and ability to work

with the new system and who have gained substantial knowledge of it should be

offered an active system-support role together with a promotion. This should

motivate other employees to follow their colleagues` paths and will discourage

internal system experts leaving the company for a higher-paying consulting job.

Training ? technical and non-technical ? must be identified and performed to

help people make the transition to working with the new HRIS and the new

organization model. The training needs to go beyond screen-prints and mouse-

clicking sequences to an explanation of how the new process fits into the

organization, its relationship to other processes, and the execution steps in the

process. Employees will have to know the why as well as the how of the

process.



Formalized cross-functional support teams are essential to the steady operation

of the HRIS. Firms can be successful by patching together an informal

organization of HR analysts and IT analysts, but that loose-knit framework may
not hold up to the continued demands of HRIS support. A formalized, co-

located team of HR and IT analysts will be most effective.



Many firms also find it useful to preserve the steering committee past HRIS

implementation and into the productive life of the HRIS. The steering

committee is an excellent group to monitor the ongoing quality of HRIS

operations, manage relationships with the HRIS vendor, and clear the path for

later HRIS upgrades or enhancements.

It may take years for a firm to adjust to a new HRIS. As it does, most will see

that their organizational structure will tend to reflect the HRIS structure. This is

natural ? managers for years have organized their departments to fit the way

work is done, and the organizational culture often reflects that structure. When

the way that work is done changes ? and an HRIS will engender that change ?

it`s natural for the organization to change as well. Structural and cultural

changes might be painful, and people will resist, but it`s hard to fight these

natural tendencies. Instead of fighting them, managers need to be aware of

what`s happening and proactively prepare for this new world.











SURVEY OF SOFTWARE PACKAGES FOR HUMAN RESOURCE

INFORMATION SYSTEMS INCLUDING ERP SOFTWARE SUCH AS

SAP, ORACLE FINANCIALS AND RAMCO MARSHALL:



ERP Software Market will grow to USD 29 Billion in 2006


The ERP market continues to benefit from a widespread acceptance of the idea

that businesses must have integrated information systems to be competitive.

Management and IT organizations are realizing that the most effective way to

satisfy this need is to purchase an ERP package that features broad functionality

and

pre-built

integration.



The ERP software market came into being in the early 1990s when companies

realized they had to integrate the databases and applications that drove their

back offices, their manufacturing floors, and their distribution operations. ERP

software expanded beyond manufacturers into healthcare, financial services,

and other businesses because the same kinds of problems, assembling a product,

delivering

it,

and

charging

for

it,

span

all

industries.



Just like companies need to consolidate their business operations into one place,

the biggest ERP software vendors have been on a buying binge, and after all of

the acquisitions, the installed bases of ERP software are increasingly controlled

by a handful of players. Shepherd reckons that 66 percent of new ERP license

sales in 2006 will done by SAP and Oracle. SAP will have 43 percent, with

Oracle getting 23 percent. The next biggest player will be Sage Group, with five

percent, followed by Microsoft with four percent and Infor (which now owns

SSA Global) getting three percent.

As the ERP methodology has become more popular, software applications have

emerged to help business managers implement ERP in business activities such

as inventory control, order tracking, customer service, finance and human

resources.



ERP Software Services


Enterprise Resource Planning or ERP may be defined as an information system

that takes into account all related applications of an enterprise and integrates all

departments and functions across a company in a single computer. There are a

number of departments (finance, human resource, production, etc) which form

the backbone of the company. Each of these departments has their own

processes running. ERP integrates all the individual processes of all individual

departments

into

a

single

system.



Synapse is a leading offshore software development company in India with a

determined focus on ERP software. We develop customized ERP software tailor

made according to the business needs of small, medium and large companies.

At our state of art software development facility, we have the perfect blend of

expertise and infrastructure that help us devise ERP software that are unique

and

confirms

to

the

highest

standards

for

quality.



Their in-depth industry experience gives us the ability to devise our software. In

other words, their ERP software include a vast range of business analysis and

efficiency tools, and are user friendly. They give special importance to

navigation methods in their ERP software so that users can easily find what they

are looking for. However, the "Enterprise Resource Planning" is the most

common

term

that

has

been

used

widely.



Enterprise Resource Planning systems (ERPs) integrate (or attempt to integrate)

all data and processes of an organization into a single unified system. A typical

ERP system will use multiple components of computer software and hardware

to achieve the integration. A key ingredient of most ERP systems is the use of a

single, unified database to store data for the various system modules.

Examples of modules in an ERP which formerly would have been stand-alone
applications include: Manufacturing, Supply Chain, Financials, CRM, Human

Resources, and Warehouse Management.









SAP



SAP, started in 1972 by five former IBM employees in Mannheim, Germany,

states that it is the world's largest inter-enterprise software company and the

world's fourth-largest independent software supplier, overall. The original SAP

idea was to provide customers with the ability to interact with a common

corporate database for a comprehensive range of applications. Gradually, the

applications have been assembled and today many corporations, including IBM

and Microsoft, are using SAP products to run their own businesses.



SAP applications, built around their latest R/3 system, provide the capability to

manage financial, asset, and cost accounting, production operations and

materials, personnel, plants, and archived documents. The R/3 system runs on a

number of platforms including Windows 2000 and uses the client/server model.

The latest version of R/3 includes a comprehensive Internet-enabled package.



SAP has recently recast its product offerings under a comprehensive Web

interface, called mySAP.com, and added new e-business applications, including

customer relationship management (CRM) and supply chain management

(SCM).



In early 2001, SAP, a publicly traded company, had 21,500 employees in over
50 countries, and more than 30,000 installations. SAP is turning its attention to

small- and-medium sized businesses. A recent R/3 version was provided for

IBM's AS/400 platform



SAP

focus

on

SMEs

Having sold its wares to most of the world's largest businesses, SAP now

believes it has to tap into the small- and midsized-business market to keep

growing. The small-business software market is estimated to be worth $10

billion a year worldwide, but SAP won't corner it without a fight from more

consumer-oriented rivals like Microsoft and IBM. As if that competition weren't

fierce enough, upstart companies like Salesforce.com, Sage Group plc and

Upshot (acquired last year by SAP rival Siebel Systems) are grabbing a piece of

the small-business market with products they hope will squeeze SAP out.



Oracle Financials





The Oracle E-Business Suite Financials family of applications automates and

streamlines all your financial business processes, for enterprise-wide daily

business intelligence that lets you make more informed decisions, improve

operations, and reduce costs. A unified data model provides a single accurate

view of all your financial information, including a 360-degree view of your

customers. And Oracle Financials, running on Oracle technology, gives you

industry-leading performance and scalability.

Seamless

Integration,

Complete

Flexibility

Oracle Financials is part of the Oracle E-Business Suite, integrating with other

E-Business Suite applications including Oracle marketing and Oracle Supply

Chain Management. Implement one or several application families--or
implement the complete Oracle E-Business Suite for the fastest way to high-

quality enterprise information.



Oracle eBusiness Suite



Oracle Applications is a collection of business ERP (Enterprise Resource

Planning) applications developed by Oracle Corporation, which utilize their

core RDBM database technology. Sometimes referred to as Oracles "E-

Business Suite", Oracle Applications (currently in the 11i series version),

contains several product lines such as Oracle Financials, Oracle Logistics,

Oracle HR, Oracle Sales, and others. Within each product, there are several

modules, each to be separately licensed.

Key technologies incorporated into the applications are the Oracle database

technologies, (RDBMS, PL/SQL, java, html, xml, engines), the "technology

stach" (Oracle Forms Server, Reports Server, Apache Web Server, Discoverer,

Jinitiator and (Sun Java).



Oracle developed the applications from a terminal based VT220 interface to a

client server model in 10.7, only to drop this within the space of a year for the

Network Computing Architecture (NCA). This was a revolutionary concept

exploiting the internet/network and thin client computers.

Oracle Financials



Oracle Financials includes several dozens of "modules", each which is

separately licensed within the E-Business Suite. Examples of these modules

include:



General Ledger


Cash Management

Purchasing

Payables

Receivables

Inventory

Projects

Fixed Assets

HRMS (Human Resource Management System)

Work in process

Bills Of Material.



Oracle Ledger includes ERP features like Intercompany transactions,

Consolidation etc.



Main competitor: SAP.

Cobra Solutions

Human Resource Managers are constantly being asked to retrieve employee

information (even on employees who have not been with the company for

years). Without the proper tools, employee information may be lost or worse,

stolen. As a way to maintain employee information in a safe and secure

method, COBRA Solutions has created the Employee Database Manager

(EDM).

EDM will not only store all the necessary employee

information, it will retain all e-mails and documents in a digital

filing cabinet so HR Managers will have documentation on
every aspect of an employee`s time with the organization.

EDM is a software product that resides on either a Personal Computer or

Network Server and has been designed to:

maintain employee information;

replace paper files with a digital file cabinet;

notify the user of when Tasks need to be performed;

divide employee data between separate divisions/locations;

import and export important employee information;

retain all e-mails sent to each employee;

provide a history of wages and benefits;

track vacation days as well as other days absent;

store Emergency information;

provide a system to store/track notes on an employee;

perform a mass enrollment into group plans;

personalize mailings with a mail merge;

create Benefit Statements;

interact with other COBRA Solutions products;

schedule tasks to be performed at a later date; and

provide numerous reports to document everything!



Conclusion

In all, the HR function is still to a large degree administrative and common to

all organisations. To varying degrees, most organisations have formalised

selection, evaluation, and payroll processes. Efficient and effective management

of the "Human Capital" Pool (HCP) has become an increasingly imperative and
complex activity to all HR professionals. The HR function consists of tracking

innumerable data points on each employee, from personal histories, data, skills,

capabilities, experiences to payroll records. To reduce the manual workload of

these administrative activities, organisations began to electronically automate

many of these processes by introducing innovative HRMS/HCM technology.

Due to complexity in programming, capabilities and limited technical resources,

HR executives rely on internal or external IT professionals to develop and

maintain their Human Resource Management Systems (HRMS). Before the

"client-server" architecture evolved in the late 1980s, every single HR

automation process came largely in form of mainframe computers that could

handle large amounts of data transactions. In consequence of the high capital

investment necessary to purchase or program proprietary software, these

internally developed HRMS were limited to medium to large organisations

being able to afford internal IT capabilities. The advent of client-server HRMS

authorised HR executives for the first time to take responsibility and ownership

of their systems.



The payroll module automates the pay process by gathering data on employee

time and attendance, calculating various deductions and taxes, and generating

periodic pay cheques and employee tax reports. Data is generally fed from the

human resources and time keeping modules to calculate automatic deposit and

manual cheque writing capabilities. Sophisticated HCM systems can set up

accounts payable transactions from employee deduction or produce garnishment

cheques. The payroll module sends accounting information to the general ledger

for posting subsequent to a pay cycle.



The time and labour management module applies new technology and methods

(time collection devices) to cost effectively gather and evaluate employee
time/work information. The most advanced modules provide broad flexibility in

data collection methods, as well as labour distribution capabilities and data

analysis features. This module is a key ingredient to establish organisational

cost accounting capabilities.



The benefit administration module permits HR professionals to easily

administer and track employee participation in benefits programs ranging from

healthcare provider, insurance policy, and pension plan to profit sharing or

stock option plans.



The HR management module is a component covering all other HR aspects

from application to retirement. The system records basic demographic and

address data, selection, training and development, capabilities and skills

management, compensation planning records and other related activities.

Leading edge systems provide the ability to "read" applications and enter

relevant data to applicable database fields, notify employers and provide

position management and position control.



Through employee or manager self-service (ESS or MSS), HR activities shift

away from paper based processes to using self-service functionalities that

benefit employees, managers and HR professionals alike. Costly and time

consuming HR administrative tasks, such as travel reimbursement, personnel

data change, benefits enrolment, enrolment in training classes (employee side)

and to instruct a personnel action, authorise access to information for employees

(manager's side) are being individually handled and permit to reduce HR

transaction time, leading to HR and organisational effectiveness. Consequently,

HR professionals can spend fewer resources in managing administrative HR
activities and can apply freed time and resources to concentrate on strategic HR

issues, which lead to business innovation.



based processes to using self-service functionalities that benefit employees,

managers and HR professionals alike. Costly and time consuming HR

administrative tasks, such as travel reimbursement, personnel data change,

benefits enrolment, enrolment in training classes (employee side) and to instruct

a personnel action, authorise access to information for employees (manager's

side) are being individually handled and permit to reduce HR transaction time,

leading to HR and organisational effectiveness. Consequently, HR professionals

can spend fewer resources in managing administrative HR activities and can

apply freed time and resources to concentrate on strategic HR issues, which lead

to business innovation.





Questions:



1. Explain HRIS in detail.

2. How to collect data that is required for the HRIS?

3. How does e-HR enhances the quality of HR functions?

4. What is ERP?

5. Explain the various ERP packages with examples

6. Write a note on the current trends in HRIS.


UNIT ? II

HUMAN RESOURCE INFORMATION SYSTEM

DATA MANAGEMENT FOR HRIS

Objectives



After reading this lesson you should be able to know about

2.1 - data management for Human Resource Information System

2.2 - data formats

2.3 - entry procedure & process

2.4 ? data storage & retrieval

2.5 - transaction processing

2.6 - office automation

2.7 ? information processing and control functions

2.8 - design of Human Resource Information System

2.9 - relevance of decision making concepts for information system design

2.10 - human resource management needs analysis

2.11 - concept & mechanics

2.12 - standard software and customized software

2.13 - investment in Human Resource Information System

The human resource of any organization is recognized as the greatest asset. With high

training and educational standards, numerous technical and professional certifications, job

descriptions and classifications, benefits coverage, changing work environments, health and

safety issues, diverse working conditions and pay scales, it is very much necessary to develop a
comprehensive Human Resource Information System to address these issues on a secure

database.



INFORMATION SYSTEM





Information system is a systematic formal assemblage of components to

perform data processing operations of an organization for (i) meeting legal data

processing requirements, (ii) providing information to managers to carry out

their function effectively and (iii) providing various useful reports required.



MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS)



The Management Information System refers to connection of managed

operating system by exchange of information. It is the operative system required

to perform variety of functions to produce useful outputs for efficient

management of an organization. It is very significant to find that more and more

organizations emphasize application of management information system for

increase in the efficiency of management. The Management Information System

utilizes computer hardware and software, manual procedures, management

decision models and a database to provide information in support of

management operations, and decision-making function in an organization. MIS

is organized method of providing past, present and projected information

relating to internal operations of an organization and external intelligence by

good environmental scanning technique.





HUMAN RESOURCE INFORMATION SYSTEM ( HRIS )


Human Resource Information System refers to the system of

collecting, recording, classifying, presenting, processing, storing and

disseminating various information, required for efficient and effective

management of human resources in an organization. In order to manage diverse,

expensive, and human resource information in complex environment, human

resource department of various organizations have increasingly used computer

based human resource information system. Human Resource Information

System ( HRIS ) supports strategic and operational use of the human resource.

HRIS is required for the following purposes.



(1) Planning human resource requirements of organization

(2) Employee training & development to increase efficiency

(3) Formulation of policies and programmes relating to human resource

The Human Resource Information System (HRIS) is a software package that provides a

complete management system for human resource activities in small-to-medium-sized

businesses. They help streamline administrative procedures, manage employee benefits, reduce

the need for paperwork and manual records, and keep track of all personal and job-related

employee data.

The Human Resources Information System is helpful for different organizations to set

measurable benchmarks to acquire, train and retain the best employees, co-ordinate employee

job descriptions with areas of responsibility, schedule training for recertification, safety, and

revised work procedures, provide incentives to motivate and improve employee performance,

track accident statistics and implement corporate strategies to improve overall health and safety.

While the database provides quick access and track for the entire work history, every employee

can be able to view only their personal information over systematic human resource information

system.

HRIS can handle management of benefits for both HR personnel and company

employees. HR directors can import payroll and benefits data into HRIS from in-house and
outside sources. This allows them to manage all facets of HR from a single location. It also

provides employees with self-service access to their accounts. With a secure system that

requires a log in ID and password for each user, employees can check vacation balances, review

benefits data, and update personal information without having to first contact HR staff.

Basic Features of HRIS

In lieu of standardized paperwork, HRIS allows employees to fill out forms online,

make changes based on life events, and get information on their benefits at any time. Rather

than "pulling an employee's file," HR personnel can refer any information about an employee

through the system, including personal information, benefits, number of dependents, emergency

contacts, and job history.

HRIS includes both standardized and customized reports. Standard reports feature

templates for various administrative purposes including employee reviews, record keeping,

workers' compensation, employment history, and absence tracking. Customized reports are

created that incorporate categories and information unique to business. Most HRIS applications

have a comprehensive tracking system. HRIS tracking capabilities can maintain grievances filed

by or against the employee stemming from discipline, disputes, and complaints.

Quick reference guides can be available relating to all areas of the

Human Resources Information System, including staff benefits, benefit

contribution rates, calendars, personnel change reason codes, and the payroll

process flowchart. Detailed instructions regarding establishing and changing

employee benefit and deduction information, including retirement, pension,

health care, flexible spending accounts and employee selected deductions.

Documentation on the human resource accounting structure can be possible;

including staff benefit calculations and charges, review and correction of human

resource accounts. Documentation is helpful for payroll issues, including time

reporting requirements, check and auto deposit distribution, taxable benefits,

terminations, review and correction of employee pay and leave, and tax forms.

Instructions and forms for employees to establish or change their employee
information related to the Human Resources system, including name, address,

retirement, pension, and health care.



2.1 DATA MANAGEMENT FOR HRIS

Only some of the organizations have sufficient policies and procedures in place to

collect the majority of necessary human resource data. For those not having sufficient policies

and procedures in place, this deficiency limit their ability to extract, report or analyze

performance in areas where information is not collected and maintained in a structured format.

The organizations themselves should be aware of many of the shortcomings in their HR data.

Partly, this may be the result of a number of internal audits that had been carried out in the

organizations, and partly, feedback from staff and external bodies. Issues surrounding data

quality indicates that data collection policies and procedures are not always implemented

successfully

in

practice.





The organizations, which take, planned and measured approach to the implementation

and ongoing management of their HRIS, tend to make more effective use of their systems.

These organizations were better positioned to generate information for a greater range of

strategic and operational human resource purposes. The other organizations take a less

structured, more urgent approach, as short-term human resource processing requirements drove

their management of the system.

Elements of Data Management


As noted above data management can be viewed as comprising the

following tasks:


Capture refers to movement of data from the instrument or simulation

to the storage mechanism. This often involves some form of data
selection or compression. It also involves the creation of Meta data.



Storage refers to the place and procedure required for storage of data by

the use of automatated data vaults and tape stores

Management refers to indexing and cataloguing the data and providing

methods to organize and move it from site to site or between programs
which involves meta data and self-defining data formats.



Analysis refers to processing or fusion and mining the data to extract the

science.



Visualization refers to presenting the data in a variety of forms to aid

analysis and the dissemination of results.

2.2 DATA FORMAT

Only some of the organizations had sufficient policies and procedures in place to collect

the majority of the necessary HR data. For those not having sufficient policies and procedures in

place, this deficiency may limit their ability to extract, report or analyze performance in areas

where information cannot be collected and maintained in a structured and easy to access format.

Data has motion, going from one location to another. It is more and more moving

between systems, persons, departments, and organizations. This is essential, as it indicates that

data is actually used, rather than just stored. In order to emphasize the actual use of data, there is

need for information or knowledge. When data is in motion, there is not only a change

of place or position, but also change in other aspects. The data "format" may change when it is

transferred between systems. This includes changes in data structure, data model, data schema,

data types, etc. The "interpretation" of data may also vary when it is passed on from one person

to another. Changes in interpretation are part of data semantics rather than data structure. The

"level of detail" may change in the exchange of data between departments or organizations, e.g.

going from coworkers to managers or from local authorities to the central government.

In this context often changes are seen in the level of detail, by the application of

abstraction, aggregation, generalization, and specialization. Moreover, the "systems

development phase" of data models may vary. This is particularly the case when

implementation-independent data models are mapped to implementation-oriented models (e.g.

semantic data models are mapped to operational database specifications).
Common Data Format

The Common Data Format is a self-describing data format for the storage and

manipulation of scalar and multidimensional data in a platform and discipline independent

fashion. When one first hears the term "Common Data Format" one intuitively thinks of data

formats in the traditional sense of the word. Although there may be own internal self-describing

format, it consists of more than just a data format.

This is a scientific data management package, which allows programmers and

application developers to manage and manipulate scalar, vector, and multi-dimensional data

arrays. Therefore, programmers are not burdened with performing low level physically format

and unformat data file.



2.3 ENTRY PROCEDURE AND PROCESS

All organizations should have appropriate guides and instructions, which outline the

processes for entering data and preparing reports from their HRIS systems. However, in most

cases, considerable efforts and resources are required to collect and arrange the data for

presentation to users. Lack of awareness of the capabilities of the HRIS, and lack of staff

training, also indicates that the capabilities of HRIS are not being maximized in the most

efficient and effective manner.

In most of the organizations, there may be a number of significant gaps in the human

resource reports produced for management. These gaps may be the result of the organizations

not identifying these issues as information needs or not having policies, procedures and systems

in

place

to

capture

required

information.



Information used for Decisions

All organizations should use information from the HRIS to monitor progress in some

important HR areas and to make decisions regarding key operational issues. Although shadow

systems were sometimes used to generate additional HR data, particularly for some of the more
strategic HR issues, this represented something of a missed opportunity. However, many

managers consider that there is scope to improve the information that is provided to them on a

regular basis.



Continuous Improvement

Although the organizations review aspects of their HR information needs, processes

and data quality from time to time, it is not usually done as part of a systematic management

plan and business plan. There may be lack of basic financial and operational information on

costs, which made it impossible for the organizations to measure the cost-effectiveness of their

HRIS, including core and shadow systems, and the return on their investment.

Human Resource Process



The Human Resource Process includes maintenance of personnel records,

annual review and revision of employee handbook, audit of HR strategies,

policies and procedures, implementation of employment/termination

procedures, employee development program, performance management

process, on-site support, employee retention programs, employee morale

building, and compensation plan review.



Recruiting and Employment Process



Different activities of recruiting service process are employment

verification, job description development strategy, applicant screening,

reference and background check, conduct of interviews etc. This process

involves back-office support for recruitment processes, skill testing and new

employee orientation programme.


Benefits Administration Processes



Various activities of this process are brokerage services, custom benefit

plan strategies and design, benefit analysis, cost control and reduction,

recommendations, development of employee communications, eligibility and

enrollment services, employee claims resolution, monthly invoice audit and

reconciliation, on-line employee access to benefits information, health and

welfare, defined benefit, defined contribution, employee call center, E-

commerce etc.



Other Processes



Other processes are payroll process, HR outsourcing processes, talent

solutions consulting processes, contact center processes, health care processes,

talent and organizational change processes, personnel policies & procedures,

human resource administration processes, training & development processes,

wage and salary administration processes, employee relations processes,

knowledge management processes etc.



2.4 DATA STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL

A data storage and retrieval system separates information regarding the

expertise of individuals into four files, which can be independently and

separately accessed. The records in the various files include fields for indicating

the beginning and end of a range of topics within a hierarchical classification

system, the level of the topic within the classification system and a field for

facilitating alphabetic sorting of topics independently of hierarchical level, and

a novel code format for the beginning and end of range indicators permits a
small computer to effectively manipulate data in a hierarchical classification

system.





DATA STORAGE

Data storage is a method of operating a computer system having memory for storing and

retrieving information concerning a subject, which comprises the following.

(a) in the computer system memory, storing subject data concerning a plurality of subjects

wherein said data includes descriptive phrases regarding various matters with which said

subjects are concerned and wherein said data includes identifying information for identifying

the

subjects

associated

with

said

descriptive

phrases;



(b) assigning selected designation numbers to said descriptive phrases and storing said selected

designation numbers in the computer system memory in association with the corresponding

descriptive phrases and with the identifying information wherein said designation numbers

correspond

to

a

respective

plurality

of

topics;



(c) in the computer system memory, storing a plurality of topic headings with each heading

being

designated

to

include

a

specified

range

of

designation

numbers;



(d) in the computer system, for each designation number assigned to a descriptive phrase,

determining which of said topic heading range includes said designation number and storing

that designation number and corresponding descriptive phrase in association with the associated

topic

heading;



(e) searching the computer system memory for one of the phrase descriptive of a selected matter

of interest, a range of designation numbers, and a designation number, and if a descriptive

phrase

is

identified,

determining

the

designation

number;


(f) using one of said range and designation number determined in step (e) to retrieve from the

computer system memory the corresponding identifying information concerning the associated

subject.

Primary Storage

Primary storage relates to semiconductor memory chips and is used to store the data

and programmes currently in use. In some data processing, all instructions and data are entered

in primary storage by which the computer completes its processing for results to be presented.

Each storage element of memory is directly accessible which can be examined and modified

without affecting other cells. Thus primary memory is also called Random Access Memory

(RAM). In some applications, computer`s primary storage capabilities are insufficient and

unable to handle the instructions and data needed for processing. Primary storage has volatile

memory for which it is desirable to save the results of processing.

Secondary Storage

Secondary storage is the nonvolatile memory that is stored externally to the computer.

Three secondary storage media used with all sizes of computer are magnetic tapes, magnetic

disks and optical technology. Through secondary storage, large volume of information can be

conveniently stored for future retrieval. The two types of secondary memory available are serial

access memory and random access memory. It is helpful to understand in terms of a cassette

tape to provide serial access memory and L.P. record to provide random access memory.





Data Warehouse for Storage

A data warehouse is a computer system designed for analyzing the historical data of

an organisation, such as sales, salaries, or other information from day-to-day operations.

Normally, an organization summarizes and copies information from its operational systems

(such as human resources) to the data warehouse on a regular schedule, such as every night or

every weekend; after that, management can perform complex queries and analysis on the

information without slowing down the operational systems.
The data warehouse also normally stores information at a coarser grain than the

operational systems: for example, if the operational systems contain a record for every sale, the

data warehouse might simply contain the total number of sales for each product at each store.

The data warehouse need not be a relational database, as it must be organised to hold

information in a structure that best supports not only query and reporting, but also advanced

analysis techniques, like data mining. Most data warehouses hold information for at least one

year and sometimes can reach half century, depending on the business/operations data retention

requirement. As a result these databases can become very large.

History of Data Warehousing

Data Warehouses became a distinct type of computer database during the late 1980's and

early 1990's. They developed to meet a growing demand for management information and

analysis that could not be met by operational systems. Operational systems were unable to meet

this need for a range of reasons:

The processing load of reporting reduced the response time of the

operational systems,

The database designs of operational systems were not optimised for

information analysis and reporting,

Most organizations had more than one operational system, so company-

wide reporting could not be supported from a single system, and

Development of reports in operational systems often required writing

specific computer programs which was slow and expensive

As a result, separate computer databases began to be built that were specifically

designed to support management information and analysis purposes. These data warehouses

were able to bring in data from a range of different data sources, such as mainframe computers,

minicomputers, as well as personal computers and office automation software such as

spreadsheet, and integrate this information in a single place. This capability, coupled with user-

friendly reporting tools and freedom from operational impacts, has led to a growth of this type

of computer system.
As technology improved (lower cost for more performance) and user requirements

increased (faster data load cycle times and more features), data warehouses have evolved

through several fundamental stages:

Offline Operational Databases - Data warehouses in this initial stage

are developed by simply copying the database of an operational system

to an off-line server where the processing load of reporting does not

impact on the operational system's performance.

Offline Data Warehouse - Data warehouses in this stage of evolution

are updated on a regular time cycle (usually daily, weekly or monthly)

from the operational systems and the data is stored in an integrated

reporting-oriented data structure

Real Time Data Warehouse - Data warehouses at this stage are

updated on a transaction or event basis, every time an operational system

performs a transaction (e.g. an order or a delivery or a booking etc.)

Integrated Data Warehouse - Data warehouses at this stage are used to

generate activity or transactions that are passed back into the operational

systems for use in the daily activity of the organization.

Data warehouse operations comprise of the processes of loading, manipulating and

extracting data from the data warehouse. Operations also cover user management, security,

capacity management and related functions.

Optional Components

In addition, the following components also exist in some data warehouses:

1. Dependent Data Marts: A dependent data mart is a physical database

(either on the same hardware as the data warehouse or on a separate

hardware platform) that receives all its information from the data

warehouse. The purpose of a Data Mart is to provide a sub-set of the
data warehouse's data for a specific purpose or to a specific sub-group of

the organisation.

2. Logical Data Marts: A logical data mart is a filtered view of the main

data warehouse but does not physically exist as a separate data copy.

This approach to data marts delivers the same benefits but has the

additional advantages of not requiring additional (costly) disk space and

it is always as current with data as the main data warehouse.

Different Methods of Storing Data

All data warehouses store their data grouped together by subject areas that reflect the

general usage of the data (Customer, Product, Finance etc.). The general principle used in the

majority of data warehouses is that data is stored at its most elemental level for use in reporting

and information analysis. Within this generic intent, there are two primary approaches to

organising the data in a data warehouse.

Dimensional Approach

The first is using a "dimensional" approach. In this style, information is stored as

"facts" which are numeric or text data that capture specific data about a single transaction or

event, and "dimensions" which contain reference information that allows each transaction or

event to be classified in various ways. As an example, a sales transaction would be broken up

into facts such as the number of products ordered, and the price paid, and dimensions such as

date, customer, product, geographical location and sales person. The main advantages of a

dimensional approach is that the Data Warehouse is easy for business staff with limited

information technology experience to understand and use. Also, because the data is pre-

processed into the dimensional form, the Data Warehouse tends to operate very quickly. The

main disadvantage of the dimensional approach is that it is quite difficult to add or change later

if the company changes the way in which it does business.

Database Normalisation Approach

The second approach uses database normalisation. In this style, the data in the data

warehouse is stored in third normal form. The main advantage of this approach is that it is quite
straightforward to add new information into the database, whilst the primary disadvantage of

this approach is that it can be quite slow to produce information and reports.



Advantages of Using Data Warehouse

Through data ware house, business decision makers can obtain various kinds of trend

reports e.g. the item with the most sales in a particular area / country for the last two years. This

may be helpful for future investments in a particular item.

There are many other advantages of using a data warehouse, some of which are explained

below. The data ware house

enhances end-user access to a wide variety of data.

increases data consistency.

increases productivity and decreases computing costs.

combines data from different sources, in one place.

provides an infrastructure that could support changes to data and

replication of the changed data back into the operational systems.

Concerns in Using Data Warehouse



The use of data warehouse has the following concerns for the storage of

data for an organization.

Extracting, cleaning and loading data could be time consuming. But this

can be made easy with the help of warehousing tools.

Data warehousing project scope might increase.

Problems with compatibility with systems already in place e.g.

transaction processing system.
Providing training to end-users, who end up not using the data

warehouse.

Security can be developed into a serious issue, especially if the data

warehouse is web accessible.

Retrieval System

One form of retrieval system relates to locating and retrieving books in a

library. With the advent of computers, the development of on-line

automated catalogs for bibliographic retrieval became a reality. Another

form of data retrieval involves searching data bases based on specific query

criteria, and such data storage and retrieval systems of great complexity and

sophistication are possible

With the advent of the personal computer, three developments

occurred. First, data base application programs are created, which make it

possible for any computer-literate person to create and use his own database.

Second, the data base application programs make it very easy to modify,

change, and adapt the form and structure of existing databases. Third, by

creating individual databases, data control and security is moved much

closer to the database.

Effectiveness of the data base application program is directly related

to the power, sophistication, and ease-of-use of the query or search routines

incorporated into the program. The ability of the data base application

program to employ Boolean algebraic search routines, combined with the

capacity to handle searches expressed, as complex, large formulas is critical.



A significant dimension of a retrieval system is its ability to define

and accommodate hierarchical searching procedures. This critical and useful
dimension, usually missing from most systems because of complexity in

implementation, must be incorporated at the time of storage and retrieval.



While single-site data bases require no special characteristics, data

base systems intended for multiple-site configuration pose special problems

if the data control and security benefits inherent in single-site data bases are

not to be compromised in an effort to catalog individuals at multiple sites

and/or

to

provide

multiple-site

access

to

the

data

base.



Data retrieval can be regarded as a natural instance of multicriteria

decision-making. Queries are formulated as selection criteria aggregated by

means of appropriate operators. Retrieval is then performed as a process by

evaluating the degrees of satisfaction of the criteria by each document, and

then aggregating them. Another decisional instance concerns the problem of

improving retrieval performance by taking into account user indications on

documents relevance. Relevance feedback mechanisms exploit user-system

interaction in order to improve retrieval results by means of an iterative

process of query refinement. In this process the main decisional issue is that

of finding new concepts, with which to expand-modify the initial query so

that it better reflects the user's information needs.

2.5 TRANSACTION PROCESSING

A transaction is a unit of program execution that accesses and possibly updates various

data items. It refers to collection of operations that form a single logical unit of work.

Transaction processing is designed to maintain a database in a known, consistent state, by

ensuring that any operations carried out on the database that are interdependent are either all

completed successfully or all cancelled successfully.

Transaction processing allows multiple individual operations on a database to be linked

together automatically as a single, indivisible transaction. The transaction-processing system
ensures that either all operations in a transaction are completed without error, or none of them

are. If some of the operations are completed but errors occur when the others are attempted, the

transaction-processing system rolls back all of the operations of the transaction (including the

successful ones), thereby erasing all traces of the transaction and restoring the database to the

consistent, known state that it was in before processing of the transaction began. If all

operations of a transaction are completed successfully, the transaction is committed by the

system, and all changes to the database are made permanent; the transaction cannot be rolled

back once this is done.

Transaction processing guards against hardware and software errors that might leave a

transaction partially completed, with a database left in an unknown, inconsistent state. If the

computer system crashes in the middle of a transaction, the transaction processing system

guarantees that all operations in any uncommitted (i.e., not completely processed) transactions

are cancelled.

The concept of a transaction, and a transaction processing service simplifies

construction of such enterprise level distributed applications while maintaining

integrity of data in a unit of work. A transaction is a unit of work that has the following

properties:

ATOMICITY: A transaction should be done or undone completely and

unambiguously. In the event of a failure of any operation, effects of all

operations that make up the transaction should be undone, and data

should be rolled back to its previous state.

CONSISTENCY: A transaction should preserve all the invariant

properties (such as integrity constraints) defined on the data. On

completion of a successful transaction, the data should be in a consistent

state. In other words, a transaction should transform the system from one

consistent state to another consistent state. For example, in the case of

relational databases, a consistent transaction should preserve all the

integrity constraints defined on the data.
ISOLATION: Each transaction should appear to execute independently

of other transactions that may be executing concurrently in the same

environment. The effect of executing a set of transactions serially should

be the same as that of running them concurrently. This requires two

things:

1. During the course of a transaction, intermediate (possibly

inconsistent) state of the data should not be exposed to all other

transactions.

2. Two concurrent transactions should not be able to operate on the

same data. Database management systems usually implement

this feature using locking.

DURABILITY: The effects of a completed transaction should always

be persistent and durable for the human resource information system of

different organizations.

Transaction management is one of the most crucial requirements

for enterprise application development. Most of the large enterprise

applications in the domains of finance, banking and electronic

commerce rely on transaction processing for delivering their business

functionality. Given the complexity of today's business requirements,

transaction processing occupies one of the most complex segments of

enterprise level distributed applications to build, deploy and maintain.

Enterprise applications often require concurrent access to distributed data shared

amongst multiple components, to perform operations on data. Such applications should

maintain integrity of data (as defined by the business rules of the application) under the

following circumstances:

distributed access to a single resource of data, and
access to distributed resources from a single application

component.

In such cases, it may be required that a group of operations on (distributed)

resources be treated as one unit of work. In a unit of work, all the participating

operations should either succeed or fail and recover together. This problem is more

complicated when

a unit of work is implemented across a group of

distributed components operating on data from multiple

resources, and/or

the participating operations are executed sequentially or

in parallel threads requiring coordination and/or

synchronization.

In either case, it is required that success or failure of a unit of work be

maintained by the application. In case of a failure, all the resources should bring back

the state of the data to the previous state (i.e., the state prior to the commencement of

the unit of work).

Application Components

Application components are clients for the transactional resources. These are the

programs with which the application developer implements business transactions. With

the help of transaction manager, these components create global transactions,

propagate the transaction context if necessary, and operate on the transactional

resources with in the scope of these transactions. These components are not responsible

for implementing semantics for preserving properties of transactions. However, as part

of the application logic, these components generally make a decision whether to

commit or rollback transactions.
Resource Managers

A resource manager is a component that manages persistent and stable data

storage system, and participates in the two-phase commit and recovery protocols with

the transaction manager. A resource manager is typically a driver or a wrapper over a

stable storage system, with interfaces for operating on the data (for the application

components), and for participating in two-phase commit and recovery protocols

coordinated by a transaction manager. This component may also, directly or indirectly,

register resources with the transaction manager so that the transaction manager can

keep track of all the resources participating in a transaction. This process is called as

resource enlistment. For implementing the two-phase commit and recovery protocols,

the resource manager should implement supplementary mechanisms using which

recovery is possible.

Resource managers provide two sets of interfaces: one set for the application

components to get connections and perform operations on the data, and the other set

for the transaction manager to participate in the two-phase commit and recovery

protocol.

Transaction Manager

The transaction manager is the core component of a transaction-processing

environment. Its primary responsibilities are to create transactions when requested by

application components, allow resource enlistment and delistment, and to conduct the

two-phase commit or recovery protocol with the resource managers.

Responsibilities of Transaction Manager



The Transaction Manager of an organization has the following important

responsibilities.

1. Establish and maintain transaction context
2. Maintain association between a transaction and the participating

resources.

3. Initiate and conduct two-phase commit and recovery protocol with

resource managers.
4. Make synchronization calls to the application components before beginning

and after end of two-phase commit and recovery process

A typical transactional application begins a transaction by issuing a request to a

transaction manager to initiate a transaction. In response, the transaction manager starts

a transaction and associates it with the calling thread. The transaction manager also

establishes a transaction context. All application components and/or threads

participating in the transaction share the transaction context. The thread that initially

issued the request for beginning the transaction, or, if the transaction manager allows,

any other thread may eventually terminate the transaction by issuing a commit or

rollback request.

Before a transaction is terminated, any number of components and/or threads

may perform transactional operations on any number of transactional resources known

to the transaction manager. If allowed by the transaction manager, a transaction may be

suspended or resumed before finally completing the transaction.

Once the application issues the commit request, the transaction manager

prepares all the resources for a commit operation (by conducting a voting), and based

on whether all resources are ready for a commit or not, issues a commit or rollback

request to all the resources.

Transaction Demarcation

A transaction can be specified by what is known as transaction demarcation.

Transaction demarcation enables work done by distributed components to be bound by

a global transaction. It is a way of marking groups of operations to constitute a

transaction.

The most common approach to demarcation is to mark the thread executing the

operations for transaction processing. This is called as programmatic demarcation. The

transaction so established can be suspended by unmarking the thread, and be resumed

later by explicitly propagating the transaction context from the point of suspension to

the point of resumption.
The transaction demarcation ends after a commit or a rollback request to the

transaction manager. The commit request directs all the participating resources

managers to record the effects of the operations of the transaction permanently. The

rollback request makes the resource managers undo the effects of all operations on the

transaction.

An alternative to programmatic demarcation is declarative demarcation.

Component based transaction-processing systems such as Microsoft Transaction

Server, and application servers based on the Enterprise Java Beans specification

support declarative demarcation. In this technique, components are marked as

transactional at the deployment time. This has two implications. Firstly, the

responsibility of demarcation is shifted from the application to the container hosting

the component. For this reason, this technique is also called as container managed

demarcation. Secondly, the demarcation is postponed from application build time

(static) to the component deployment time (dynamic).

Transaction Context and Propagation

Since multiple application components and resources participate in a

transaction, it is necessary for the transaction manager to establish and maintain the

state of the transaction as it occurs. This is usually done in the form of transaction

context.

Transaction context is an association between the transactional operations on

the resources, and the components invoking the operations. During the course of a

transaction, all the threads participating in the transaction share the transaction context.

Thus the transaction context logically envelops all the operations performed on

transactional resources during a transaction. The underlying transaction manager

usually maintains the transaction context transparently.

Resource Enlistment

Resource enlistment is the process by which resource managers inform the

transaction manager of their participation in a transaction. This process enables the

transaction manager to keep track of all the resources participating in a transaction. The
transaction manager uses this information to coordinate transactional work performed

by the resource managers and to drive two-phase commit and recovery protocol.

At the end of a transaction (after a commit or rollback) the transaction manager

delists the resources. Thereafter, association between the transaction and the resources

does not hold.

Two-Phase Commit

This protocol between the transaction manager and all the resources enlisted

for a transaction ensures that either all the resource managers commit the transaction or

they all abort. In this protocol, when the application requests for committing the

transaction, the transaction manager issues a prepare request to all the resource

managers involved. Each of these resources may in turn send a reply indicating

whether it is ready for commit or not. Only when all the resource managers are ready

for a commit, does the transaction manager issue a commit request to all the resource

managers. Otherwise, the transaction manager issues a rollback request and the

transaction will be rolled back.

Transaction processing has always been complex and critical. However,

transaction processing has caught the interest and attention of both developers and IT

organizations simultaneously. This is not without reason. These recent technologies

simplify distributed transaction management, and are fueled by two major

developments:

Component Based Development: Based on the above

interface centric paradigms, component based distributed

application development has become a reality.

Object Orientation: The maturity of object-oriented

programming assisted by design patterns and

frameworks, made implementation of these technologies

feasible.
In addition, these technologies address the scalability and robustness that are

required for today's enterprise applications.

2.6 OFFICE AUTOMATION

Office automation refers to the varied computer machinery and software used to

digitally create, collect, store, manipulate, and relay office information needed for

accomplishing basic tasks and goals. Raw data storage, electronic transfer, and the management

of electronic business information comprise the basic activities of an office automation system.

Office Automation helps in optimise or automate existing office procedures.

The backbone of office automation is a LAN, which allows users to transmit data, mail

and even voice across the network. All office functions, including dictation, typing, filing,

copying, fax, telex, microfilm and records management, telephone and telephone switchboard

operations, fall into this category. Office automation was a popular term in the 1970s and 1980s

as the desktop computer exploded onto the scene. One critical variable affecting the success in

office automation is user acceptance. No matter how technologically superior the equipment is,

there may be failure if users reject it.

Office Automation for different organisations should include the following important

functions.

Generate Microsoft Word documents or business forms from data stored

in other applications such as Microsoft Access

Generate presentations from external data

Automatically send emails to customers or groups in Microsoft Outlook

Create custom data entry mechanisms for Microsoft Office Documents

Create custom procedures for CAD programs

Maintain and organise data stored in Microsoft Excel or Microsoft

Access

Create stand-alone executables to automate your office environment

Attributes and Advantages
It is observed that, there is rapid growth in the use of Office Automation

systems from the past few years. This growth can be attributed to the

following reasons.

1. Value of information and information explosion

2. Increase in office cost and need to improve office productivity

3. Availability of equipment and skills

Large number of organisations are being benefitted by office automation

due to the following advantages related to the human resource information

system.

1. Better utiliation of human resources

2. Improved quality of work

3. Efficient decision

4. Better service for customers

5. Increased organisational effectiveness

Office Automation Functions

Different offices perform the same basic functions and operations

irrespective of the type and size of the office. There can be creation of original

documents and providing inputs to the automation system from documents

received outside. There is exraction of data for further presentation as required,

storing and retrieving it for subsequent reference. Additional comments, notes

and references can be helpful for decision making and duplicating the

documents for distribution. For transferring documents and communications to

different individuals, the office automation makes extensive use of data

communications and networking facilities. Another function of office
automation is presentation of data either on screen for visual inspection or in the

form of printouts or in any other form required by the users.

2.7 INFORMATION PROCESSING & CONTROL FUNCTIONS



Invariably it is found that various information flow from one place to

another and from person to person for the purpose of taking appropriate

decision in an organization. Information processing requires lot of detailed

planning to provide control mechanisms in every stage to ensure data integrity.

Because in computerised MIS, information can be processed as per predefined

set of instructions and computer can not take decisions like human being to

change data to meet particular condition or wrong reporting. In computerised

MIS, a synthesis between human efforts and computer capacity need to be

brought about for successful information processing at different levels.

Higher Level



In the higher level for processing of selected data human efforts are

related to appropriate decision, proper policy, future plan and required feedback

for effective control. Through computer efforts, there should be achievement of

targets by having exception reports and predictive reports.

Middle Level



In the middle level, for having summary data from different inputs,

human efforts should be related to preparation of process schedule, planning of

control activities and collection of feedback information for improvement. At

this level, required data should be processed as per schedule to prepare output

reports and to create back up data.

Lower Level



In the lower level, database can be created and data can be processed for

editing, compiling and reporting. In this level, much importance is necessary for
data review, correct data control input to edit data, store data and prepare

control reports according to the requirements of an organization.

2.8 DESIGN OF HRIS



A system means a group of procedures, which are interrelated and

interdependent for acting upon to result in a large unit of work. The system

approach to human resource management must precede the design and use of

HRIS. The management of different organizations must take active part in the

design of HRIS. Participatory design process is advocated for successful

implementation of HRIS in an organization. Technical knowledge of the

computer, though preferable, is not very much necessary for the manager to

perform the role in the design of HRIS. The information system should have a

systematic formal assemblage of components to perform data processing

operations for the following purposes.

1. Meeting the the legal and transactional data processing requirements

2. Providing information to managers to carry out their functions

effectively

3. Providing various useful reports required by internal and external

constituents

The design of Human Resource Information System depends on the

nature and size of the organisation, requirements of management,compliance of

govmental regulatrions, availability of suitable software packages etc. For the

design of HRIS, the following steps should be taken.

Preliminary System Analysis


This step involves definition of the problem, specification of objectives,

identification of operational needs, diagnosis of constraints, preparation of

physibility report etc.

Systems Design

In this step, the problems are to be described in detail, alternative

solutions are to be developed and evaluated, broad engineering requirements

of the selected alternatives are to be specified to evaluate the effects on

people.

Systems Engineering



In the next step, a detailed study of engineering components and their

cost effectiveness should be made to make recommendations about the

system to top management for approval and adoption in the organisation.

System Testing and Installation



This step includes various activities for testing of Human Resource

Information System for effective operation and successful installation in

different departments in the organisation.

Systems Monitoring and Evaluation



This step involves measuring the performance of the system, its

continuous evaluation and modification according to strategic requirements

and competitive advantages of the organisation.

2.9 Relevance of Decision Making Concepts for Information System Design
Despite the fact that decision making can be treated as a central aspect of

managing, the literature and teaching sorrounding decision making have

generally focussed on the moment of decision rather than the on the whole

lengthy, complex process of defining and exploring many alternatives in a

decision that precedes the final act of deciding.Those who utilize management

information system to assist in decision making process, the steps in problem

solving and systems design are extremely important.

It is very important to differentiate between programmed and

nonprogrammed decisions representing the extremities of the range of

decisions. The major reason to distinguish between these two types of decisions

is to arrive at some classification of decision-making methods inorder to have

appropriate decisions.

Programmed Decisions



The concept of programmed decision is important because the ultimate

goal of information sysyems is to provide purely programmed decisions. Many

examples of programmed decisions are available in almost any organisation, the

most familiar being the computation of pay in accordance with union

agreement, contract, organisation policy or regulation.

One of the goals of MIS design is to devise decision rules for the

problems that lend themselves to solution by decision rule and the programmed

approach.

Nonprogrammed Decisions



Decisions are unprogrammed to the extent that, they are unstructured,

new of high consequence or complex or involve major commitments.
Advertising budgets, new recruitment decisions, acquisition and merger

considerations, board member selection, and similar problems illustrate the

nonprogrammed type of decision, that cannot be automated.

Over the years, managers are required to learn and acquire the habit of

making decisions based on the problem-solving process of defining problem,

identifying alternatives and selecting the best alternative. This proces is being

followed today and still accepted as good advice for taking nonprogrammed

decisions.

MIS for Decision Making



Future prospects for programming the decisions of the organisation

through proper design of Management Information System are enormous. There

is increase in the automation of programmed decisions to support the Human

Resource Information System needs throughout the organisation. The decision

making concepts for information system design can be related to following

three basic considerations.

1. The essential elements in programming a decision is rules

followed for the problem to be solved, the decision process to be

programmed and the process for which information required.

2. Management Science includes operation research, associated

mathematical tools, and the scientific approach to solve problems

which provides methods and techniques to design decision rules.

3. The computer is a fantastic device for processing information

and making programmed decisions according to predetermined

decision rules.

Information System Design
The objective of information system design is related to information

production process by which the computer automatically makes decision. This

process is completed by taking the following steps.

1. Analyzing the problem by means of management science approach

2. Designing decision rules to solve all applications required

3. Programming the decision rule for the computer processing

4. Developing the input and output of the computer information system

to provide for automated decisions by the computer

Design of Decision Rule



Decision rule for programming or automating decisions can be designed

by the utilisation of management science techniques and a general procedure for

having decision rules in complex situations.This procedure includes following

rules.

1. Identify and formulate the manager`s decision in writing

2. Find out the constants, parameters and variables involved

3. Select the variables that appears to be most influential

4. Distinguish between controllable and uncontrollable variables

5. State verbal relationships among the variables, based upon known

principles

6. Perform symbolic manipulations solving systems of equations

Decision-Assisting Information Systems



This system concentrates on the information required by the manager as

decision-maker. This information may be furnished independently or in an
iteractive sense where there is a man-machine relationship in a problem-solving

network. This vital type of system has the following characteristics and outputs.

1. Some outputs are decisions as the computer maked decision according to

programmed decision rule

2. Some outputs are secondary information in the form of reports to be

used by a subsequent human decision maker

3. The methods of management science can be utilized in both types of

systems for the design of decision rules

4. There are provisions for man-machine type interactions in the sense that

the manager or decision maker can model the decisions prior to

commitment

5. Optimum solutions are provided by management science decision rules



Use of Human Resource Data

All organizations should have a number of committees that received or considered

Human Resource information on a regular or ad hoc basis, including Governing Boards,

Executive management committees, and Human Resource committees.

The range of HR issues considered by the committees varies. This includes recruitment

and selection, performance management, workforce planning, workforce diversity, learning and

development, absenteeism, leave, turnover rates and exit surveys, and capability frameworks.

Where the relevant data had been captured by the HRIS, most of the HR data presented at

these meetings was sourced from the HRIS. However, as noted earlier, this was not always the

case and shadow HR systems were very common in the organisations. In such cases these

systems were often the source of data.
There was evidence that committees were using this information to monitor progress in a

number of key areas and to make some decisions regarding operational strategies to be pursued

by the organisation.

Learning and development

Although learning and development is a common agenda item discussed by committees,

only one used its HRIS to record and report on learning and development activities. This was

despite the fact that all of the HRISs examined as part of the audit had the capability to record a

significant amount of learning and development information. For two of the four organisations

examined, information recorded was maintained on one or more shadow systems.





2.10 HRM NEEDS ANALYSIS



Human Resource Management (HRM) is required for an organization

to provide the benefits available from managerial and operative functions. All

human resource managers are supposed to perform both the functions. HRM

needs relate to every aspect of the way in which the organization interacts with

its people, e.g. by providing training and development opportunities, appraisal

to find out about individual needs for training and development.

Human Resource Management

The concept of Human Resource Management (HRM) in the public sector has evolved

since the 1980s. HRM is now recognized as an important management tool, as it supports one of

the key resources of an organization. Traditionally, managers see the human resources function

as primarily one of administrative processing. However, the focus of human resource has now

widened to a broader, more strategic role. HRM is now seen as having two dimensions:

operational HRM, which includes basic human resource processing tasks such as pay,

recruitment, leave processing; and strategic HRM, which involves delivering those services, in a

way that directly supports the implementation of organizational strategies.
Strategic Information Needs

To achieve the organizational objectives, efficiently and effectively, it is important that

management at different levels in an organization has access to appropriate information,

including human resource information, to enable it to make informed decisions. Ideally,

government objectives should be driving an organization`s strategic directions, including the

human resource initiatives adopted by the organization. This, in turn, should be determining the

human resource data that is collected, analyzed and reported. The organizations should report

human resource data monthly, quarterly or six monthly to executive management committees as

part of a consolidated package of management information. However, although there may be

some exceptions, regular human resource reporting is generally limited to basic operational data

such as staff commencements and separations, staff numbers by divisions / regions, and leave

balances. Sometimes this is supplemented with additional data such as various types of leave

taken.

Operational Information Needs

It is important that not only executive management should have access to human

resource data but that line managers should also have access to human resource data relevant to

their sphere of responsibilities. It is noted that the reporting functions of the human resource

information system are complex and complicated to provide required information.

Documentation defining the information required for basic regular monthly reports, such as

payroll expenditure, should be generally apparent in the organizations.

Documentation and Communication of Human Resource Policies



Human resource policies, procedures and guidelines should be located on the

organization`s intranets, thereby giving all departmental officers access to the policies and

procedures. Displays on intranets are usually supplemented with hard copy circulars, forms,

checklists, templates, and guidance material to assist users when entering data, and also to assist

in the completeness, accuracy, and management of information.

The organizations tend to communicate policies and procedures through their intranets.

It is also important for the organizations to ensure that information on the intranet is up-to-date,

as documents are generally only reviewed when they are considered a priority topic.


Managerial Functions





The basic managerial functions include planning, organizing, directing

and controlling different human resource related activities. All these functions

are to be coordinated effectively through appropriate human resource

information system followed in an organization.



Operative Functions





The following operative functions are entrusted to the Human Resource

Department to perform various works efficiently by taking proper decisions on

the basis of Human Resource Information System.



1. Staffing & Employment

2. Training & Development

3. Wage & Salary Administration

4. Work Culture & Environment

5. Security & Welfare Activities

6. Employer & Employee Relation

7. Records & Statistics

8. Promotion & Transfer

9. Integration & Separation

10. Retirement & Retrenchment

11. Legal Compliance & Government Reporting

Internet




The Internet has become has become a major force for change in human

resource management. HRM system can be involved for recruitment of

employees through developed website of the organization. Companies are also

using commercial recruiting services and database on the world wide web,

posting messages in selected Internet news groups and communicating with job

applicants by Internet E-mail. The Internet has wealth of information for the

employers and prospective employees.



Intranet





Intranet technologies allow companies to process HRM applications

over their corporate intranets which allows the HRM department to provide

information service to their employees. The concerned HRM department can

provide around the clock services to large number of customers. There can be

faster dissemination of information for timely action through appropriate

decisions. Intranets can collect information online from employees for input to

their personal files. Employees can easily download instructions to get the

required information.



Human resources are the people that work for an organization, and

human resource management is concerned with how these people are managed

efficiently. However, the term Human Resource Management (HRM) has come

to mean more than this because people are different from the other resources

that work for an organization. People have thoughts and feelings, aspirations

and needs. The term HRM has thus come to refer to an approach, which takes

into account both:



1. The needs of the organization
2. The needs of employees



Different individuals have their own needs and aspirations. HRM

therefore involves finding out about the needs and aspirations of individual

employees, for example through the appraisal process and then creating the

opportunities within the organization and outside the organization for

employees to improve themselves.



Information Needs in HRM





A very sound information base is required for planning and control of

human resources. Human Resource Management needs are related to various

information for the following functions.

1. Procurement function

2. Development Function

3. Compensation Function

4. Maintenance Function

5. Integration Function



The computerized human resource information system needs following

important information for efficient management of the employees working

in different organizations.

1. Recruitment information

2. Personnel information

3. Manpower planning information

4. Training information

5. Health information

6. Appraisal information
7. Payroll information

8. Placement information



Training and Development Needs Analysis



There should be analysis of the opportunities and experiences that are

required for individuals to train and develop in order to meet organizational and

personal objectives. A training and development plan can then be created to set

out how these needs can be addressed in practical steps. HRM needs are related

to provision of training opportunities and courses for individuals to develop

skills, knowledge and attitudes that help the organization to achieve its

objectives. For developmental needs there should be provision of opportunities

and courses for individuals to develop skills, knowledge and attitudes.



2.11 CONCEPT AND MECHANICS





The management of different organizations should carefully understand

the concept and mechanics relating to human resource information system.



Concept



The concept of Human Resource Management Information System is

veering around federation of sub systems developed and implemented as per

requirement conferming to the overall plan. Thus rather than a single general

Human Resource Management Information System , an organisation should

have some required types of information system to serve managerial needs in

various ways. Human Resource Management relates to various managerial

activities of organization which provide opportunity for maximum employee

contribution under healthy working conditions, promote individual development
and encourage mutual confidence in between employer and employees. Human

resource management is required for maximum contribution of individuals and

groups working in the organization for effective achievement of organizational

goals through proper information system.

Mechanics





The Human Resource Management (HRM) mechanics relate to the

computer based management information system. The internet and intranet

facilities are very much helpful for collection, record, process, and analysis of

various information for increasing efficiency of human resource management.



SOFTWARE AND OPERATING SYSTEM





Software is a set of programmes. Procedures and related documents

associated with a computer system. A programme is a coded set of instructions

that interprets the information provided to computer with the keyboard or

mouse and then direct to carry out the required task. The operating system gets

the computer running and controls the operation of the computer activities. It

manages the entry, flow and display of software to and from each part of the

computer system.



The disc operating system is the interpreter between the user and the

computer. The instruction fed thtough the keyboard by the user is converted into

digital sygnal into the system circuitry and the instruction is processed to

display resulting output on the screen.



2.12 STANDARD SOFTWARE AND CUSTOMISED SOFTWARE


There is a distinct difference between American and European software

providers: US vendors dominate the market for standardized software, whereas

their European counterparts focus on customer-orientated applications. In South

Africa, vendors and user organizations alike source software from both

territories, with the result that the state of these markets has a direct impact on

the economic fortunes.



US companies specialize in standard software because they have maximum

interest in gaining a monopoly for their applications through economies of

scale. European companies, on the other hand, specialize in services and system

integration. They have learned to form alliances with all types of companies

along the value-added chain. Today, with their knowledge, they are in a position

to work in a customer-orientated fashion. Instead of forcing the customer to use

a

standard,

they

meet

the

customer's

needs.



The software industry consists of two different markets - the primary

sector of software companies and the secondary software industry that has led to

new business models in many sectors of the economy. They develop packaged

software, standardized applications and system software for standardized

customer requirements. Furthermore, there are thousands of small and medium-

sized companies in Europe and South Africa with selected customers that

develop and sell applications, which are customized for individual customer

needs. Software is a real engine for innovation in this area.



The last major wave of implementing standardized solutions is the turn of

the new millennium. Since then, companies' budgets for new IT projects have

dropped drastically, even while their demands for information technology have

grown considerably. Today's customers want to protect their investments. They
require a single view of all information relevant to the company. They must be

able to call up their information in real time, so that they can react flexibly to

markets

that

are

growing

more

quickly

all

the

time.



This can be achieved only if existing applications are integrated and

modernized. Providers must offer their customers integrated applications that

are customized for their needs, which are developed in close consultation with

the customers. A commercial enterprise's competitiveness depends on its ability

to innovate. Companies must be able to react ever more quickly to increasing

corporate demands, such as short product lifetimes and greater innovation

speed.



Therefore, companies that face this competition need operational

application software that is customized for them and their market. At the same

time, providers of operational system software must continually modify their

software to meet the market's changing demands. This is true for applications

involving such sectors as e-government and online banking, as well as for

products customized by customers who place their orders via the Internet.



Users need customized software that makes it possible for them to

innovate with their products, processes, and collaborations, and that develops

with the customers. Standardized software can do this to only a limited degree.



2.13 HRIS-An Investment





Cost incurred for information on location, selection and training of

employees are the capital components of investment in Human Resource

Information System. These are similar to purchase or installation cost. The
investment in HRIS can be related to various cost involved in recruitment,

selection, hiring, placement, training and development of employees in different

organizations. The HRIS continues to provide return on investment through

increased reporting and data analyses.



Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS) range from basic

programs that automate business processes such as payroll, through to the most

advanced learning management and performance management. This may

represent a significant investment for any organization, costing from thousands

to literally millions of dollars in capital and implementation costs.



MODULE - I

MANPOWER PLANNING



Concept



Manpower Planning (MPP) now referred to as Human Resource Planning

(HRP) is an attempt to meet organization`s need for Human Resources with the

available supply of manpower in the local and national labor markets. For

many organizations, specialized departments within personnel may be

established to concentrate exclusively on manpower planning. Issues that these

departments may address include:





How many employees does the organization currently employ?



What is the age profile, by the department, of our employees?



Where in the organization are these employees to be found?



Which are the biggest departments in the organization?



What skills do our employees?



How many employees, on average, leave the organization every year?


In which areas of our business do we tend to lose` more employees?



These questions are fundamental to the day-to-day activities of manpower

planners and are crucial for the future success of the business. Human resources

are considered the most valuable, yet the most volatile and potentially

unpredictable resource, which an organization utilizes. If an organization fails

to place and direct human resources in the right areas of the business, at the

right time, and at the right cost (Bramham, 1990; Smith, 1971), serious

inefficiencies are likely to arise creating considerable operational difficulties

and likely business failure. Consider the rather unlikely, but illustrative

example, of a business, which one-day finds that all its employees in the

accounts department suddenly retire! This ridiculous situation is an extreme

example of poor manpower planning. Most organizations would keep records

on the age profile of their departments so that such events can be created for

with specific development, progression, recruitment and training plans. Such

contingencies would ensure that human resources are channeled through

organizations in an orderly and disciplined fashion.


In order to hire personnel on a scientific basis one should establish in advance a

standard with which applicants can be compared. This standard should

establish minimum acceptable qualities necessary adequate performance of job

duties and responsibilities to determine human abilities required for execution.


HRP determines the human resource needs of the whole enterprise and its every

department for given future period for the various operations envisage in

connection with the accomplishment of organizational objectives and

departmental goals. HRP is the predetermination of the future course of action

chosen from a number of alternatives for procuring, developing, managing,

motivating, compensating, career planning, succession planning and separating
human element of the enterprise. It determines a conscious choice of patterns of

the humanization of work environment in an organization.



According to Geisler, HR planning is the process ? including forecasting,

developing and controlling ? by which a firm ensures that it has the right

number of people and the right kind of people at the right places at the right

time doing work for which they are economically most useful.


According to Wendell French, human resource planning may be defined ? as

the process of assessing the organisation`s human resources needs in the light of

organisational goals and making plans to ensure that a competent, stable work

force is employed.


According to E.W.Vetter, human resource planning is a process by which an

organisation should move from its current manpower position to its desired

manpower position. Through planning, management strives to have the right

number and right kind of people at the right places at the right time, doing

things which result in both the organisation and the individual receiving

maximum long-run benefit.


Leon C Megginson is of the opinion that, human resource planning is an

integrated approach to perform the planning aspects of the personnel function in

order to have a sufficient supply of adequately developed and motivated people

to perform the duties and tasks required to meet organisational objectives and

satisfy the individual needs and goals of organisational members.



Characteristics of Human Resources Planning


From the above definitions, we can get some general characteristics of human

resources planning. They are

1.

Human resources plan must incorporate the human resources needs in

the light of organisational goals.

2.

Human resource plan must be directed towards well-defined objectives.

3.

Human resource plan must ensure that it has the right number of people

and the right kind of people at the right time doing work for which they

are economically most useful.

4.

Human resource planning should pave the way for an effective

motivational process.

5.

A human resource plan should take into account the principle of

periodical reconsideration of new developments and extending the plan

to cover the changes during the given long period.

6.

Adequate flexibility must be maintained in human resources planning to

suit the changing needs of the organisation.


Human resource planning or manpower planning are synonymous. It

incorporates all human beings at all stages in the organisation. It is essentially

concerned with the process of estimating and projecting the supply and demand

for different categories of personnel in the organisation for the years to come.

The Need for Manpower Planning


1.

The rationale of human resources planning stems from the challenges

posed by an overflowing realization that managerial success depends on

the success of human resources management. If the desired people were

not in position, then the implementation of the plans would suffer.

2.

Capabilities, skills, performance abilities and potentialities of each

individual are evaluated in the human resources audit. On many

occasions, replacement charts or succession plans are kept so that
potential executives are located for every position in the organisation

during the given future period.

3.

Forecasting and auditing provide background information about internal

factors like current and expected skills and vacancies. Accordingly

manpower planning can be done. The normal wastage of HR due to

turnover, death, superannuation, needs to be planned. Thus, manpower

planning must be supported by human resource forecasting, human

resource auditing and human resources analyzing.

4.

There is an increasing awareness among the managers that no business

can survive and grow without adequate and appropriate human resources

and their proper management. Taking cognizance of the emerging

trends, the human resources planning must respond to the need for

structural changes on the one hand and to the emerging set of human

expectations on the other.

5.

Adequate investment in human capital is indispensable in a business

environment. A substantial improvement in quality of life and quality of

work life backed by total quality management, require systematic human

resource planning.

6.

Planning will help in positioning needed employees at the desired time

taking into account the lead time for the process of identifying the

shortages, getting the vacancy cleared and going through the selection

process. It identifies and develops the personnel to move up and assume

greater responsibility.

7.

Human resources planning must always be backed by proper evaluation

and appraisal systems. Periodical appraisal of performance, both in

qualitative and quantitative terms, throws light on actual performance as

a result of planning. Scientific performance appraisals facilitate in
identifying the gaps existing so that corrective measures can be

undertaken.

8.

Changes in the environment are continuously taking place. Human

resource planning suggests training and development programmes so

that personnel can adapt to these changes.

9.

Human resource planning helps in reducing the cost of production and

keeps the wheels moving, by providing adequate personnel, utilizing the

human resources present in the organisation itself and effectively

controlling and utilizing them.



It should be sufficiently obvious at this stage that manpower planning involves

both a quantifiable and quantitative dimension leading to:




Recruitment plans: to avoid unexpected shortages etc.,



The identification of training needs: to avoid skill shortages



Management development: in order to avoid bottlenecks of trained but

disgruntled management who see no future position in the hierarchy but

also to avoid managerial shortages ? this often requires careful planning.



Industrial relations plans: often seeking to change the quantity and

quality of employees will require careful IR planning if an organization

is to avoid industrial unrest.


In practice, manpower planning is concerned with the demand and supply of

labor and problems arising from the process of reconciling these factors` (Tyson

and York, 1989:76). In summary the need for manpower planning lies with the

long-term and short-term operational needs for the organization but also,

critically, with the needs and aspirations of individuals within the business. It is

with respect to this issue that we must now turn.


The Creation of a Manpower Plan



The creation of manpower plan involves certain factors, which contribute to the

planning of manpower resources both in terms of internal considerations, and

external factors which influences the final outcome of the manpower plan.





Internal Considerations



Wastage analysis



Initially the manpower planner will be concerned with the average number of

employees that leave and therefore need replacing just in order to maintain a

constant number of employee resources in the organization. In large

organizations with many departments and demarcated lines of responsibility this

can become quite a difficult statistical task requiring considerable time and

effort in the collection, synthesis and analysis of data. In smaller organizations it

can often be calculated very simply because the informality and personal nature

of the organization creates a climate where everybody knows everyone else and

when someone leaves it is quite an important and visible event. In large

organizations it is far more likely that an employee is simply seen as a payroll

number, or a job code. The constant ebb and flow of numbers` within the

organization requires a far more rigorous calculation of wastage` than the rule

of thumb and management owner discretion in smaller firms.



The simplest way of calculating wastage is through a turnover analysis:



Number leaving in one year / Average number of employees x 100 = x%



However, this gives a somewhat crude and unrealistic picture of wastage

because it fails to locate where these people are leaving from. In general,

though, it gives a broad picture of the current state of employee in total and it is
usual to consider a 25% turnover rate as perfectly respectable in modern large-

scale organizations. Anything approaching 30-35% may well start alarm bell

ringing because it suggests that a large amount of money is being directed into

advertising and recruiting employees who are more likely to leave than in an

average 25% turnover organization. However, as we suggested above when the

manpower planner comes to formulate plans and policies to address this

turnover this figure does not provide much useful and practical information. For

example, where are these people leaving from? What is the average age of the

person who is leaving? For example, it could be that your turnover figure has

become distorted over the recent past because of the age profile of the

organization and in any one year it may be that there are far more employees

than on average reaching retirement age. Consequently it would be more useful

to decompose this figure into those that are retirements from those, which are

voluntary`. Furthermore, turnover might be limited to one particular category

of employment, one department, a certain grade or one geographical area. The

variety of influences which affect employee turnover are far too numerous to be

captured by one calculation such as the labor turnover ratio. Thus for practical

reasons we need a more subtle index of turnover which is more closely

identifiable with factoral influences.



An alternative to the labor turnover ratio is the Labor Stability Index (Bowex,

1974), which is calculated from the following formula:



Number of employees exceeding one year`s service / Number of employees

employed one year ago x 100 = x%



The calculation by contrast calculates and emphasis those that stay and hence is

known as a stability index. Its importance can be demonstrated through a

calculation and comparison with the turnover ratio. Consider two companies:




Company X, which in January 1990 employs 2,00 assistants, but from

which by January 1991 800 have voluntary` left. This gives a turnover

of 800/2,000 x 100 =40%.



Company Y which January 1990 employs 2,00 assistants, but from

which by January 1991 only 100 have actually voluntarily` left the

company, although they have been replaced eight times during the year.

This would again give a turnover of 40%.


The labor stability index by contrast would show that Company X has a stability

rate of only 60% whereas company Y has a far more impressive stability rate of

95%.


Far more sophisticated techniques have evolved in order to more accurately plot

and account for employee wastage. In recent years many companies have

become interested in the length of service of employees and it is possible to

develop a frequency distribution of leavers by length of service.


It is possible to identify three distinct phases in the analysis of turnover.

Following the work of the Tavistock Institute, in particular by Hill and Trist

(1953, 19550 in two notable papers of study at the Park Gate Iron and Steel

Company, a relationship was established between an initial induction crisis`, a

period of differential transit`, and a concluding settled connection`. During the

induction crisis it can be seen that the relationship between the individual and

the organization is unsettled and a little insecure as the frequency of leavers was

far greater in the first eighteenth months of service than during subsequent

periods of employment. This can be seen as a trial period` in which employees

are not sure if they are going to stay. Furthermore, the shock` of employment

and the concomitant attention to discipline, hard work and regular time keeping
takes some time to adjust to. In the crisis period therefore there are likely to be a

far greater incidence of inductees leaving than in subsequent periods. Hill and

Trist also found that other problems associated with manpower planning could

be discerned during this period as the rates of unsanctioned` absence and

industrial accidents were far greater during the induction crisis than during the

period of settled connection. In attempting to explain and analyze this

relationship they found considerable evidence to suggest that accidents would

fall and relatively sanctioned absences` would rise. This was explained as a

result of the quality of the relationship established between the individual and

the organization. After the induction crisis a more stable and secure relationship

was established such that a more positive relationship between the individual

and the organization reduced accidents and unauthorized absences so that:


Only sickness, therefore, remains; and the suggests is that recourse is had to

some kind of sickness when the individual, no longer able, in virtue of his

improved relationship, to project his...bad feelings on to the firm as freely as he

once did.


Thus the authors conclude that employees internalize stress and dissatisfaction

and do not blame` the organization after the induction crisis. The word blame`

is used by the authors to denote a psychological reaction to the organization

such that the individuals are looking to punish or hit back at the organization for

the stress of employment. Accidents are likely to be higher because of the lack

of commitment and dedication to the organization, and thus absences are more

likely to be a result of the organization`s fault rather than the individual

employee. Therefore an overall fall in the level of absence after the induction

crisis suggests a dynamic connectedness between sanctioned absence (in the

form of sickness) and the phase of settled connection` (Hill and Trist,

1955:136). Consequently the employee moves from being a victim at the
psychological level to one who increasingly looks to himself for the cause of

sickness or the need for absence.


Such internal considerations as absence, accidents and sickness ratios provide,

as Timperely and Sission (1989) state, manpower planning policy implications

in that there are inherent predictabilities in the process, allowing wastage to be

expected and therefore, forecast`.



Not only do manpower planners need accurate information on absence and

turnover rates but also statistical records and forecasts of retirements by

department, sabbaticals, and the average number of employees engaged in

training and retraining.



Markov Models


These models are often used by manpower planners in the consideration of

internal factors, which need to be considered in the development of a manpower

plan. The Markov model and variants of it attempt to model the flow of

individuals within the organization. It states that organizations have predictable

wastage patterns according to length of service, and that this pattern can be

discerned early on in an individual`s career. Once survival` rates have been

calculated and barring no future shocks, a fairly stable pattern of progression

and replacement needs over time can be calculated. Furthermore, adaptations of

the basic Markov model are used to project recruitment on the basis of stable

patterns of both wastage and promotion. From this a planner can predict the

probability and the likely time span of an individual progressing from one grade

to another further up the hierarchy. From a consideration of these factors

important planning information can be used in the recruitment and selection

process, but also importantly in the training needs of individuals progressing
from one grade to another further up be used in the recruitment and selection

process, but also importantly in the training needs of individuals such that the

organization does not suffer from supply shortages. If a planner knows with

some certainty that an individual tends to spend only two years in a particular

managerial grade before being promoted to some other department, contingent a

training and recruitment plans can be made so that shortages in that area can be

eliminated. Thus if recruitment, promotion and wastage patterns of staff are

stable over reasonable periods of time. The probability that someone in a

particular grade at any time will be in some other grade at a later time can be

established from the detailed recent career histories of staff` (Timperely and

Sission, 1989: 111).



Integrated Strategic Planning and HR Planning


The starting point of effective human resource planning is the organisations`

overall purpose or mission. Strategic plans are as unique as the organisations

that develop them, but underlying most organisational strategies that is the

determination of some unfulfilled need for products or services that the

organisation can satisfy. Providing these products or services then becomes part

of the organisation`s goals. An organisational goal is a long-term broad purpose

or aim. Part of strategic planning is the development of organisational goals

and objectives.


To a great extent, organisational goals influence the nature of all managerial

processes and of human resource management in particular. This means that

the structure of the organisation, the specific jobs to be performed, and the

financial and technological resources needed and the qualifications and numbers

of people employed will consistently reflect organisational goals. Human

resource planning is the ongoing planning of the organisation`s human
resources, philosophy, policies and programmes in the context of the overall

strategic plans and the changing conditions within and outside the organisation.


Significance of HR Planning


From the above, it is clear that any failure in HR planning will be a limiting

factor in achieving the objectives of the organisation. If the number of persons

in an organisation is less than the number of persons required, then, there will

be disruptions in the work, production will be hampered and the pace of

production will be slow and employees will be burdened with more work. If

there is surplus manpower in the organisation, there will be unnecessary

financial burden on it in the form of a large pay bill if employees are retained in

the organisation or if they are terminated the compensation will have to be paid

to the retrenched employees. Therefore, it is necessary to have adequate

number of persons in an organisation to attain its objectives.

In order to achieve the objectives of the organisation, the HR planner should be

concerned with the timing and scheduling of planning of human resources.

Furthermore, the management has to be persuaded to use the results of

manpower planning studies.


Manpower planning can also be used as an important aid in framing the training

and development programmes for the employees because it takes into account

the anticipated changes in the human resource requirements of the

organisations.


Nature of HR Planning


1.

Manpower planning involves all the activities with regard to human

resources, which belong to a heterogeneous species.


2.

Manpower planning includes determination of manpower needs both in

quantitative and qualitative terms. The determination of needs must be

made in advance to permit adequate time for education, training and

development.


3.

It includes an inventory of present manpower in order to determine the

status of the present supply of manpower so that the labour force can be

used to its full capacity.


4.

To be effective, manpower planning must focus not only on the people

involved but also on the working conditions and the relationships in

which they work.


5.

Manpower is an important asset of an organisation, which is affected by

its social, cultural, economic and psychological backgrounds.

Therefore, the manpower must be planned and utilized carefully.





HR Planning at different levels


HRP may be made at different levels and for different purposes. National

planners may make a HR plan at the national level wereas a company may make

a HR plan at the unit level.


1.

HRP at Naitonal Level: HRP at the national level helps to plan for

educational facilities, health care facilities, agricultural and industrial

develoment, and employment plans etc. The government of the country

plans for human resources at the national level. National plans for HR

forecast the demand and supply of human resources at the national level.
It also plans for occupational distribution, sectoral and regional

allocation of human resources.

2.

HRP at the Sectoral Level: HRP at the sectoral level helps to plan for

a particular sector like agriculture, industry etc. It helps the government

to allocate its resources to the various sectors depending upon the

priority accorded to the particular sector.

3.

HRP at the Industry Level: HRP at the industry level takes into

account the output/operational level of that particular industry when

manpower needs are considered.

4.

HRP at the Unit Level: HRP Planning at the company level is based

on the estimation of human resource needs of the particular company in

question. It is based on the business plan of the company. A manpower

plan helps to avoid the sudden disruption of the company`s production

since it indicates shortages of particular types of personnel, if any, in

advance, thus enabling management to adopt suitable strategies to cope

with the situation.

5.

HRP at the Departmental Level: HRP at the departmental level looks

at the manpower needs of a particular department in an organisation.







Process of HR Planning


With the expansion of business, adoption of complex technology and

professional management techniques, the process of human resource planning

has assumed great significance. HRP consists of the following stages.



1.

Analysing organisational plans and deciding objectives.

2.

Analysing factors for manpower requirements.


(a)

Demand Forecasting: Forecasting the overall human resource

requirements in accordance with organisational plans.

(b)

Supply Forecasting: Obtaining the data and information about

the present inventory of human resources and forecasting the

future changes in present human resource inventory.

3.

Developing employment plans.

4.

Developing human resource plans.



1.

Analysing organisational plans and deciding objectives:


The purpose of HRP is to relate future human resources so as to maximize the

future returns on investment in human resources. Analysis of organisations

plans, objectives and programs help in forecasting the human resource demand

and provides quantum of future work activity. Based on the objectives, growth

opportunities diversification plans and Govt. policies HRP should meet two

requirements:



(a)

It should be directly related to the essential nature of the organisation.

(b)

The changes in the selected factors should be proportional to changes in

the human resources required in the organisation.

In a large organisation, HRP is done by separate departments while smaller

organisations formulate to cover the entire organisation.





2.

Analysing factors for manpower requirements


The review of job design and analysis would provide an insight into future

capabilities, knowledge and skills of present employees. The job generally

should be designed and analysed reflecting the future needs and plans of the
organisation. The factor for manpower requirements can be analsyed in two

ways:


(A)

Demand Forecasting and

(B)

Supply Forecasting


(A)

Demand Forecasting is the process of estimating the future manpower

requirements according to the function level of skills of employees that would

help the planners to assess the overall demand for operative, supervisory and

managerial personnel. However, it is difficult to assess demand for supervisory

and managerial levels. Therefore, two forecasting techniques may be used for

this purpose.


(i)

Judgmental Forecasts, and

(ii)

Statistical Projections.


(i)

Judgmental Forecast is a conventional method, which is based on

judgement of managers and executives who have intensive and extensive

knowledge of HR requirement. Judgmental forecasts are two types.



(a) Managerial Estimate: Under this method the managers who have

sufficient knowledge about the workload, efficiency and ability of employees

think about their future workload, capabilities in future and decide on the

number and type of human resources to be required. An estimate of staffing

needs is done by first level managers and passed on to the higher level managers

for revision and approval.



(b) Delphi Method: A survey approach can be adopted with the

Delphi technique. The Delphi process requires a large number of experts who

take turns to present their forecast statement and underlying assumptions to the
others, who then make revisions in their forecasts. Fact-to-face contact among

the experts is avoided.


(ii)

Statistical Projection: Some forecasting techniques are based on

statistical methods. Some of them are given below:



(a)

Ratio-Trend Analysis : The ratio-trend analysis is carried out by

studying past ratios and forecasting ratios for the future. The components of

internal environmental changes are considered while forecasting future ratios.

Activity level forecasts are used to determine the direct human resource

requirements. This method depends on the availability of past records and the

internal environmental changes likely to occur in future.



(b)

Econometric Model: Under the econometric model, the previous

data is analysed and the relationship between different variables in a

mathematical formula is developed. The different variables affecting the human

resource requirements are identified. The mathematical formula so developed is

then applied to the forecasts of movements in the identified variables to produce

human resource requirements.



(c)

Work-Study Techniques: Work measurement, workload analysis

and techniques to increase productivity, study the internal mobility of workers

like promotions and transfer, external mobility like, retirement, etc. are studied.

The forecasting of manpower needs for expansion and modernization may

increase the demand for workers but when organisations go for downsizing the

demand for workers decreases. Suitable techniques should be selected to

measure work and analyse the volume of workload by the planners.




(B)

Supply forecasting: It is concerned with human resource requirements

from within and outside the organisation. The first step involves future supply

human resources is to obtain the data and information about the present human

resource inventory. Supply Forecasting includes HR audits, employee wastage,

changes due to internal promotion, changes due to working conditions. Some of

the steps are discussed below:




HR Audit: The employee skills and abilities are analysed and a clear

understanding of competencies available in the organisation help the

planners to identify manpower supply problems arising in the near future

so that, no eligible employee is left out when promotion and other

decisions are taken.



Employee Wastage: Supply forecasting estimates future losses of HR

of each department and the entire organisation. This is done to identify

the employees to quit due to various reasons and to forecast such future

losses in future. This helps in reducing the wastage or loss of manpower

talent.



Internal Promotions: Analysis is undertaken to assess the retirement

position and consequent vacancy position arising out of such

eventualities. Forecasting changes in HR supply in various departments

and the effect of promotions and transfers on the total number of moves

should be analysed and taken into consideration to assess the same.


(3)

Development Employment Plans:


After determining the number of personnel for each job in the organisation, the

human resource department has to determine the nature of job, i.e., job

description and job specification.


(4)

Developing a Human Resource Plan:


Net human resource requirements in terms of number and components are to be

determined in relation to the overall human resource requirement. After

estimating the supply and demand of human resources, the management starts

adjustment. When the internal supply of employees is more than the demand,

human resource surplus exists and the external recruitment is stopped. Besides

the existing employees are encouraged to take voluntary retirement. It

gradually reduces the surplus. If human resource deficit exists then the planners

have to rely on the external sources. They then proceed for scanning of the

employment market for recruitment purposes. If future supply of human

requirements, the manpower planner has to suggest to the management to alter

or modify the organisational plan. In case of shortage of certain categories of

employees, the organisation has to take care not only of recruitment but also

retention of existing employees. Control and review of human resource needs

from time-to-time ensures adequate supply of human resources in the

organisation.



































HUMAN RESOURCE RECRUITMENT



The quality of an organization`s human resources depends on the quality of its

recruits. Recruitment is the process of finding and attracting capable applicants

for employment. The process begins when new recruits are sought and ends

when their applications are submitted. The result is a pool of applicants from

which new employees are selected.


Managers become involved because they want the best people they can get, and

they often know about places where appropriate applicants can be found.

However, in large organizations, specialists in the recruiting process, called

recruiters, are often used to find and attract capable applicants. Recruiters

identify job openings through HR planning or requests by managers. The HR

plan can be especially helpful because it shows the recruiter both present

openings and those expected in the future. Advanced knowledge of job

openings allows a recruiter to be proactive. Once openings have been

identified, the recruiter learns what each job requires by reviewing the job

analysis information, particularly the job descriptions and job specifications.

Recruiters also may supplement their knowledge about a job`s requirements

through talks with the appropriate manger.


Human resource recruitment refers to any organizational activity that is

designed to affect (1) the number of people who apply for vacancies, (2) the

type of people who apply for them, and/or (3) the likelihood that those applying

for vacancies will accept positions if offered. The goal of an organizational

recruitment program is to ensure that the organization has a number of

reasonably qualified applicants, who could be chosen when vacancies occur.


The goal of the recruiting is not simply to generate large numbers of applicants.

If the process generates a sea of unqualified applicants, the organization will

incur great expense in personnel selection, but few vacancies will actually be

filled.

The goal of personnel recruitment is not to finely discriminate among

reasonably qualified applicants either. Recruiting new personnel and selecting

new personnel are both complex processes. Each task is hard enough to

accomplish successfully, even when one is well focused. Organizations

explicitly trying to do both at the same time will probably not do either well.


Because of strategic differences among companies, the importance assigned to

recruitment may differ. In general, however, all companies have to make

decisions in three areas of recruiting: (1) personnel policies, which affect the

kinds of jobs the company has to offer; (2) recruitment sources used to solicit

applicants, which affect the kind of people who apply; and (3) the

characteristics and behaviours of the recruiter, which affect the perceived fit

between the applicant and the job.


The recruitment process is illustrated in the following diagram.



Human

resource

planning








Job



JOB

analysis



information

Affirmative





action

OPENING

JOB

METHODS OF

SATISFACTORY

plans



REQUIREMENTS

RECRUIT-

POOL OF

RECRUITS



MENT

IDENTIFIED

Manager`s

comments

Specific

requests of

managers




Recruitment Constraints and Challenges


The most common constraints and challenges faced by recruiters include ?

1.

Strategic Human Resource Plans

2.

Affirmative Action Plans

3.

Environmental Conditions

4.

Organizational Policies

5.

Recruiters habits

6.

Job Requirements

7.

Costs

8.

Incentives


Strategic Human Resource Plans. These plans point out the direction of the

firm and suggest the type of tasks and jobs that need to be undertaking. HR

plans outline which job should be filled in recruiting outside the firm and which

are to be filled internally. Internal placements are much less costly and time

consuming than external recruitments, although the available pool of recruits is
limited. When external recruiting must take place, bunching up similar jobs for

college recruitment trips or advertisements can be cost affective techniques.


Affirmative Action Plans. Equal employment opportunities and the

legislation governing it guide the recruiters in recruiting certain categories of

recruits. The employers should be well informed of these implications and the

recruiters need to prepare affirmative action plans to ensure justice to all

sections of recruits.


Recruiters Habits. Recruiter`s past success can lead to certain habits.

Admittedly, habits can eliminate time consuming decisions. But habits may

also continue past mistakes or avoid more effective alternatives. Recruiters

must guard against self-imposed constraints in the form of habits.


Environmental Conditions. The unemployment rate, spot shortages in

specific skills projections of the labour force by the Department of Labour,

Labour laws, and the recruiting activities of other employers all affect

recruiters` efforts. Although these factors are considered in HR planning, the

economic environment can change quickly after a plan is finalized. To be sure

that the plan`s economic assumptions remain valid, recruiters can check three

fast changing measures. (1) Leading economic indicators, (2) Predicted versus

actual volume of business, (3) Want-ads index.

Job Requirements. What does the job require? A study of the Economic

development Committee found that specific vocational skills are less crucial

than is a high level of literacy. In addition, a responsible attitude towards work,

the ability to communicate in English, and the capacity to learn were all found

to be important. To find the best and most experienced applicant is a constraint

that is often imposed on recruiters. One problem is recruiters ability to locate

good candidates. If high level of experience is not necessary, the recruit may
become bored with the job. If intensive experience is unneeded, experience

may be an artificial job requirement. Another problem is cost. People with

greater experience usually require a higher salary than do less experienced

people. Besides, for some people in some jobs, ten years of experience is

another way of saying one year of experience repeated ten times.


Costs. The cost of identifying and attracting recruits is an ever-present

limitation. Careful HR planning and forethought by recruiters can minimize

these expenses. Of course the best solution is to use proactive HR practices to

reduce employee turnover, minimizing the need for recruiting. Evaluating the

quantity, quality and costs of applicants helps ensure that recruiting is efficient

and cost effective.


Incentives. Incentives may be a constraint. Common sense suggests that

employer will have to become more proactive. Recruiters also will have to

develop more of customer service attitude in dealing with recruits. They will

have to keep applicants better informed, schedule interviews at the applicant`s

convenience, and minimize the number of return interviews. Higher pay and

benefits will be important too.


Organizational Policies. Organizational policies are used to achieve

uniformity, economies, public relations benefits and other objectives that may

be unrelated to recruiting. The policies that may affect recruitment are

highlighted below.



Compensation Policy. Pay policies are a common limitations faced by

recruiters. Recruiters seldom have the authority to exceed the stated pay ranges

of the organization. Of course, international openings and special or additional

assignments entail additional/increasing salary package.

Employment Status Policies. Some companies have policies on hiring part-

time and temporary employees. Although there is growing interest in hiring

these types of workers, policies can cause recruiters to reject all but those

seeking full-time work. Limitations on part-time and temporary employees

reduce the pool of potential applicants, especially since this segment of the

workforce is a fast-growing one


International Hiring Policies. Policies also may require that foreign jobs be

staffed with local citizens. The use of host-country foreign nationals reduces

relocation expenses, lessens the likelihood of nationalization. If top jobs are

held by local citizens, minimizes charges of economic exploitation. Foreign

nationals are apt to be involved in the community to enable them to understand

local customs and business practices.


Promote-from-within Policies. Promote-from-within policies give present

employees the first opportunity for job openings. These policies may limit the

recruiter in several ways. They may require the recruiter to search within the

company before looking elsewhere for recruits. If an internal search must be

completed before recruiting outside the firm can begin filling job openings will

be delayed when internal candidates are unsuitable. Even if internal candidates

are acceptable, the pool of potential applicants is likely to be smaller than is the

case when internal and external channels are used. Hard choices often must be

made when internal recruitment involves the eventual selection of one coworker

in preference to another, attendant morale and motivation issues may surround

such decisions.





Challenges related to Recruitment

In the global business environment the corporate are posed with a number of

challenges in recruiting people matching with the job needs. The challenges

include - (1) recruiters face growing constraints in attracting applicants,

(2) traditional sources or channels of recruits are unlikely to be sufficient as the

growth in the labor force shows during the 1990s, (3) HR departments must

continue to meet the needs of their customers, operating managers who have

jobs that need to be filled, (4) competition for scarce human resources

sometimes causes managers to hire qualifiable candidates who need more

extensive post hire training and development.


Internal versus External Recruiting. One desirable feature of a vacancy,

which is mentioned earlier, is that it provides ample opportunity for

advancement and promotion. One organizational policy that affects this is the

degree to which the company promotes from within ?that is, recruits for

upper-level vacancies internally rather than externally.


Lead-the-Market Pay Strategies. Because pay is an important job

characteristic for almost all applicants, companies that take a lead-the-market

approach to pay--that is, a policy of paying higher-than-current market

wages--have a distinct advantage in recruiting. Pay can also be used to make

up for a job`s less desirable features--for example, paying higher wages to

employees who have to work midnight shifts.


Employment-at-Will Policies. Employment-at-will policies state that either

party in the employment relationship can terminate that relationship at any time,

regardless of cause. Companies that do not have employment-at-will provisions

typically have extensive due process policies. Due process policies formally lay

out the steps an employee can take to appeal a termination decision. Recent

court decisions have increasingly eroded employers` rights to terminate
employees with impunity. To protect themselves from wrongful discharge

suits, employers have been encouraged to state explicitly, in all formal

recruiting documentation, that the employment is at will.


Image Advertising. Organizations often advertise specific vacancies.

Sometimes, however, organizations advertise just to promote themselves as a

good place to work, in general. Image advertising is particularly important for

companies in highly competitive labour markets.


Sources of Recruitment


The sources from which a company recruits potential employees are a critical

aspect of its overall recruitment strategy. The total labour market is expansive.

Any single organization needs to draw from only a fraction of that total. The

size and nature of the fraction that is needed by the organization depends on it`s

vacancies. The type of person who is likely to respond to a job advertised on

the Internet may be different from the type of person who responds to an ad in

the classified section of a local newspaper. In the following paragraphs, an

analysis is made about different sources from which recruits can be drawn,

highlighting the advantages and disadvantages of each.


Internal versus External Sources. In the earlier pages it was discussed

internal versus external sources of recruits earlier in this chapter and focused on

the positive effects that internal recruiting can have on recruits` perceptions of

job characteristics. Now the focus of discussion is how internal sources affects

the kinds of people who are recruited.


In general, relying on internal sources offers a company several advantages.

First, it generates a sample of applicants who are well known to the firm.

Second, these applicants are relatively knowledgeable about the company`s
vacancies, which minimizes the possibility of inflated expectations about the

job. Third, it is generally cheaper and faster to fill vacancies internally.



With all these advantages, it is questionable why any organization would ever

employ external recruiting methods. There are several good reasons why

organizations might decide to recruit externally. First, for entry-level positions

and perhaps even for some specialized upper-level positions, there may not be

any internal recruits from which to draw. Second, bringing in outsiders may

expose the organization to new ideas or new ways of doing business. Using

only internal recruitment can result in a work force whose members, all think

alike and who therefore may be poorly suited to innovation.


Direct Applicants and Referrals. Direct applicants are people who apply for a

vacancy without prompting from the organization. Referrals are people who are

prompted to apply by someone within the organization. These two sources of

recruits share some characteristics that make them excellent.


First, many direct applicants are to some extent already sold on the

organization. Most of them have done some homework and concluded that

there is enough fit between themselves and the vacancy to warrant their

submitting an application. This process is called self-selection, and when it

works effectively, it takes a great deal of pressure off the organization`s

recruiting and selection systems. A form of aided self-selection occurs with

referrals too. Current employees (who are knowledgeable of both the vacancy

and the person they are referring) do their homework and conclude that there is

a fit between the person and the vacancy. They, thus sell the person on the job.

Indeed, research shows that new hires that used at least one informal source

reported having greater pre-hire knowledge of the organization than those who

relied exclusively on formal recruitment sources. Those who report having
multiple sources were even better, in terms of both pre-hire knowledge about

the position and subsequent turnover. It is observed by some studies that the

turnover rate for applicants who came from multiple recruiting sources was half

that of those recruited via campus interviews or newspaper advertisements.



Advertisements in Newspapers and Periodicals. Advertisements to recruit

personnel are ubiquitous, even though they typically generate less desirable

recruits than direct applications or referrals, and at greater expense. However,

since few employers can fill all their vacancies with direct applications and

referrals, some form of advertising is usually needed. Moreover, an employer

can take many steps to increase the effectiveness of this recruitment method.


The organization placing the advertisement has to decide which medium it will

use. The classified section of local newspapers is the most common medium. It

is a relatively inexpensive means of reaching a large number of people within a

specified geographic area. On the downside, this medium does not allow an

organization to target skill levels very well. Typically, classified ads are read

by many people who are either over-or under qualified for the position.

Moreover, people who are not looking for work rarely read the classifieds, and

thus this is not the right medium for luring people away from their current

employers. Specially targeted journals and periodicals may be better than

general newspapers at reaching a specific part of the overall labour market. In

addition, employers are increasingly using television--particularly cable

television--as a reasonably priced way of reaching people.


Employers can register their job vacancies with their local state employment

office, and the agency will attempt to find someone suitable job seekers using

its computerized inventory of local unemployed individuals. The agency makes

referrals to the organization at no charge, and these individuals can be
interviewed or tested by the employer for potential vacancies. Because of

certain legislative mandates, state unemployment offices often have specialized

desks for minorities, handicapped individuals, weaker sections, women, etc.

Thus, this is an excellent source for employers who feel they are currently

underutilizing any of these subgroups.


Private Employment Agencies. Public employment agencies serve primarily

semi-skilled, unskilled, skilled human resource segment of labour market.

Private employment agencies perform much the same service. Unlike public

agencies, however, private employment agencies charge the organization for the

referrals. Another difference between private and public employment agencies

is that one doesn`t have to be unemployed to use a private employment agency.


Private placement agencies, which exist in every major metropolitan area, arose

to help employers find capable applicants. They take an employer`s request for

recruits and then solicit job seekers, usually through advertising or among walk-

ins. Candidates are prescreened, matched with employer requests, and then told

to report to the employer`s HR department for an interview. The matching

process conducted by private agencies varies widely. Some placement services

carefully prescreen applicants; others simply provide a stream of applicants and

let the HR department do most of the screening.


Users of private placement agencies should realize that payment is handled in

one of two ways: either the employer or the applicant pays the placement firm a

fee, which commonly equals 10 percent of the first year`s salary or one month`s

wages. Fee-paid positions are openings for which the employer agrees to pay.

Other positions require the recruits to pay once they are offered a job or begin

employment.


Users of private placement agencies should be advised to carefully review any

contracts the agency asks them to sign. Some agencies will provide minimum

assistance, being more interested in the placement and less interested in an

appropriate match between the applicant and the employer. Signed contracts

may mean that even an unsatisfactory placement leads to a financial obligation

on the part of the recruit if the position is not a fee-paid one.


Professional Search Firms


Professional search firms are much more specialized than placement agencies.

Search firms usually recruit only specific types of human resources for a fee

paid by the employer. For example, some search firms specialize in executive

talent, while others find technical and scientific personnel. Perhaps the most

significant difference between search firms and placement agencies is the

approach taken. Placement agencies hope to attract applicants through

advertising, but search firms actively seek out recruits among the employees of

other companies. Although they may advertise, search firms use the telephone

as their primary tool to locate and attract prospective recruits.


Professional Associations


Professional groups of engineers, accountants, trainers, and others often

maintain placement rosters and hold job fairs, especially at annual conventions.

Some have publications that accept classified ads that reach their membership,

and a growing number of associations are willing to sell mailing lists classified

by geographic areas.


Colleges and Universities. Most colleges and universities have placement

services that seek to help their graduates obtain employment. Indeed, on-
campus interviewing is the most important source of recruits for entry-level

professional and managerial vacancies.


Many employers have found that to effectively compete for the best students,

they need to do more than just sign prospective graduates up for interview slots.

One of the best ways to establish a stronger presence on a campus is with a

college internship program. These kinds of programs allow an organization to

get early access to potential applicants and to access their capacities directly.


Another way of increasing one`s presence on campus is to participate in

university job fairs. In general, a job fair is a place where many employers

gather for a short time to meet large numbers of potential job applicants.

Although job fairs can be held anywhere (e.g., at a hotel or convention center),

campuses are ideal locations because of the large number of well-educated, yet

unemployed, individuals who live there. Participation in job fairs is a rather

inexpensive means of generating an on-campus presence, and it can even

provide some one-on-one dialogue with potential recruits--the kind of dialogue

that could not be achieved through less interactive media like newspaper

advertisements.


Finally, as more organizations attempt to compete on a global level, the ability

to recruit individuals who will be successful both at home and abroad is

becoming an increasing concern, and many organizations feel that college

campuses are one of the best places to search for this type of transportable

talent.


Electronic Recruiting. Many of the advantages of a typical job fair can now

be gained without the need to place the recruiter and recruit in the same physical

location. Computer recruitment networks allow employers to conduct searches

that are widely distributed geographically, without ever leaving the home office.
Within the last few years, the use of computer networks to recruit employees

has expanded a great deal.


Application Blanks


Job application blank collects information about recruits in a uniform manner.

Even when recruits volunteer detailed information about themselves in the form

of a resume, applications are often required so that the information gathered is

comparable. An example of an application blank and its major divisions is

given below.

A Typical Application Blank

Personal Data

1. Name ___________________________________________________________________

2. Address _______________________________3. Phone Number ___________________

______________________________________



Employment Status

4. Type of employment sought ___________

Full-time

___________

Part-

time









____________ Permanent

___________



Temporary

5. Job or position sought _____________________________________________________

6. Date of availability, if hired _________________________________________________

7. Are you willing to accept other employment if the position you seek is unavailable?

_____________ Yes _____________ No

8. Approximate wages/salary desired $_______________ per month

Education and Skills

9. Circle the highest grade completed:

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

Graduate

School

10. Please provide the following information about your education. (Include high school, trade

or vocational schools, and colleges)



a. School name __________________________ Degree(s) or diploma

________________


School

address

___________________________________________________________





b. School name __________________________ Degree(s) or diploma

________________



School

address

___________________________________________________________

11. Please describe your work skills. (Include machines, tools, equipment, and other abilities

you

possess.)

__________________________________________________________________



_________________________________________________________________________

_



_________________________________________________________________________

_



_________________________________________________________________________

_



Work History

Beginning with your most recent or current employer, please provide the following information

about each employer. (If additional space is needed, please use an additional sheet.)

12. a. Employer ____________________________________ Dates of employment

_________





Employer`s

address

______________________________________________________





Job title ____________________________________ Supervisor`s name

___________





Job

duties

______________________________________________________________





Starting

pay

________________________________



Ending

pay

__________________



b. Employer ___________________________________ Dates of employment

__________





Employer`s

address

______________________________________________________




Job

title

___________________________________



Supervisor`s

name

____________





Job duties _____________________________________________________________





Starting pay ________________________________ Ending pay _________________



Military Background

If you were ever a member of the Armed Services, please complete the following :

13. Branch of service ______________________________ Rank at discharge ____________



Dates of service _______________________________ to _________________________



Responsibilities ___________________________________________________________





Memberships, Awards, and Hobbies

14. What are your hobbies? ____________________________________________________

15. List civic/professional organizations to which you have belonged. ___________________



_______________________________________________________________________

16. List any awards you have received. __________________________________________



_______________________________________________________________________



References

In the space provided, list three references who are not members of your family:

17. a. Name ____________________________ Address __________________________

b. Name ____________________________ Address __________________________

c. Name ____________________________ Address __________________________

18. Please feel free to add any other information you think should be considered in evaluating

your application.

______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________



By my signature on this application, I:

a. Authorize the verification of the above information and any other necessary

inquiries that may be needed to determine my suitability for employment.

b. Affirm that the above information is true to the best of my knowledge.

c. Realize that falsification may be grounds for dismissal.


___________________________________________ Date ______________________

____________________Applicant's Signature_________________________________

























SELECTION



Introduction


It can be argued that staff selection is becoming the axis on which all other

human resource issues turn. In this fast moving work environment the time

available for new employees to adapt and develop is diminishing. They are

expected to become effective almost instantly, to perform and to move on.


The fluid nature of employment which Atkinson (1984) described as more

evident in the 1980s and which the encompassed in his concept of the flexible

firm`, implies that the selection process requires greater thought and emphasis

because, although employees may be with organisations for shorter and shorter

periods of time, the quantity and quality of output required will be greater and

greater.


There also appears to be a shift in the onus of responsibility, with human

resource specialists becoming casting directors` rather than actors` agents and

managers` as employees take on the task of directing and planning their own

careers. With the growing popularity of shorter-term contracts of employment

the assessment of skills and abilities will be a shared and critical activity which

starts with the selection process.


This section deals with various methods of selection validity of selection tests

and selection process. Although most human resource specialists are familiar

with the interview there are a wide range of other less familiar, alternative or

supplementary techniques requiring description and discussion.


It must be said that identifying the best candidate for the job is only one side of

a coin, as the candidate needs to be motivated to accept the job offer. This point

is made by Herriot (1984) who pointed out that the psychological contract can

be terminated by either side at any point in the process. The issue of how both

the selection decision is also addressed in this section.

Organizational Considerations in Staffing Decisions


There should be a fit between the internal strategy of an enterprise and

characteristics of the people who are expected to implement it. For strategic

reasons it is important to consider the stage of development of a business

because many characteristics of a business--such as its growth rate, product

lines, market share, entry opportunity and technology. All these change as the

organization changes. One possible set of relations between the development

stage and the management selection strategies is shown below.


Organizations that are just starting out are in the embryonic stage. They are

characterized by high growth rates, basic product lines, heavy emphasis on

product engineering, and little or no customer loyalty.

Organizations in the high-growth stage are concerned with two things: fighting

for market share and building excellence in their management teams. They

focus on refining and extending product lines, and on building customer loyalty.


Mature organizations emphasize the maintenance of market share, cost

reductions through economies of scale, more rigid management controls over

workers` actions, and the generation of cash to develop new product lines. In

contrast to the freewheeling style of an embryonic organization, there is much

less flexibility and variability in a mature organization.


Finally, an ongoing organization struggles to hold market share in a declining

market, and it demands extreme cost control obtained through consistency and

centralized procedures. Economic survival becomes the primary motivation.


Different management styles seem to fit each of these development stages. In

the embryonic stage there is a need for enterprising managers who can thrive in

high-risk environment. Such managers are known as entrepreneurs. They are

decisive individuals who can respond rapidly to changing conditions. During

the high-growth stage there is still a need for entrepreneurs, but it is also

important to select the kinds of managers who can develop stable management

systems to preserve the gains achieved during the embryonic stage. They are

called growth directors.


As an organization matures there is a need to select the kind of manager who

does not need lots of variety in her or his work. But who can oversee repetitive

daily operations, and who can search continually for economies of scale.

Individuals who fit best into mature organizations have a bureaucratic style of

management.


An ageing organization needs movers and shakers to reinvigorate it.

Strategically, it becomes important to select (again) entrepreneurs capable of

doing whatever is necessary to ensure the economic survival of the firm. This

may involve divesting unprofitable operations, firing unproductive workers, or

eliminating practices that are considered extravagant.


These characterizations are coarse, but they provide a starting point in the

construction of an important link between the development stage of an

organization and its staffing strategy. Such strategic concerns may be used to

supplement job analyses as bases for staffing.


Organizational Culture


A logical extension of the mating theory of recruitment (i.e., concurrent search

efforts for a match by organizations and individuals) is the mating theory of

selection. That is, just as organizations choose people, people choose jobs and

organizations that fit their personalities and career objectives and in which they

can satisfy needs that are important to them.


In the context of selection, it is important for an organisation to describe the

dimensions of its culture. Culture is the pattern of basic assumptions a given

group has invented, discovered, or developed in learning to adapt to both its

external environment and its internal environment. The pattern of assumptions

has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to

new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those

problems. Organizational culture is embedded and transmitted through

mechanisms such as the following:


1.

Formal statements of organizational philosophy and materials used for

recruitment, selection, and socialization of new employees
2.

Promotion criteria

3.

Stories, legends, and myths about key people and events

4.

Aspects of performance or experience leaders pay attention to, measure,

and control

5.

Implicit and possibly unconscious criteria that leaders use to determine

who fits into key slots in the organization


Organizational culture has two implications for staffing decisions. One,

cultures vary across organizations. Individuals will consider this information in

their job-search process if it is available to them. Companies such as IBM and

Procter & Gamble have a strong marketing orientation, and their staffing

decisions tend to reflect this value. Other companies, such as Sun

Microsystems and Hewlett-Packard, are oriented toward R&D and engineering.

Still others such as McDonald`s, concentrate on consistency and efficiency. By

linking staffing decisions to cultural factors, companies try to ensure that their

employees have internalized the strategic intent and core values of the

enterprise. In this way they will be more likely to act in the interest of the

company and as dedicated team members, regardless of their formal job duties.


Two, other things being equal, individuals who choose jobs and organizations

that are consistent with their own values, beliefs, and attitudes are more likely to

be productive, satisfied employees.







The Logic of Personnel Selection


If variability in physical and psychological characteristics were not so prevalent,

there would be little need for selection of people to fill various jobs. Without
variability among individuals in abilities, aptitudes, interests, and personality

traits, we would expect all job candidates to perform comparably. Research

shows clearly that as jobs become more complex, individual differences in

output variability increase. Likewise, if there were 10 job openings available

and only 10 qualified candidates, selection again would not be a significant

issue since all 10 candidates would have to be hired. Selection becomes a

relevant concern only when there are more qualified candidates than there are

more qualified candidates than there are positions to be filled, for selection

implies choice and choice means exclusion.


Since practical considerations (safety, time, cost) make job tryouts for all

candidates infeasible in most selection situations. It is necessary to predict the

relative level of job performance of each candidate on the basis of available

information. As we will see, some methods for doing this are more accurate

than others. However, before considering them, we need to focus on the

fundamental technical requirements of all such methods--reliability and

validity.


Validity of Selection Method/Standards


Personnel selection is the process by which companies decide who will or will

not be allowed into their organizations. Several generic standards should be

met in any selection process. The focus here is on the five: (1) reliability, (2)

validity, (3) generalizability, (4) utility, and (5) legality. The first four build off

each other, in the sense that the preceding standard is often necessary but not

sufficient for the one that follows. This is less the case with legal standards.

However, a through understanding of the first four standards helps us

understand the rationale underlying many of the legal standards.


Reliability


Much of the work in personnel selection involves measuring characteristics of

people to determine who will be accepted for job openings. For example, we

might be interested in applicants` physical characteristics (e.g., strength or

endurance), their cognitive abilities (e.g., mathematics ability or verbal

reasoning capacity), or aspects of their personality (e.g., their initiative or

integrity). Whatever the specific focus, in the end we need to quantify people

on these dimensions (i.e., assign numbers to them) so we can order them from

high to low on the characteristic of interest. Once people are ordered in this

way, we can then make decisions about whom to hire and whom to reject.


One of the key standards for any measuring device is its reliability. We define

reliability as the degree to which a measure is free from random error. If a

measure of some supposedly stable characteristic such as intelligence is reliable,

then the score a person receives based on that measure will be consistent over

time and in different contexts.


Validity


Validity is defined as the extent to which performance on the measure is

associated with performance on the job. A measure must be reliable if it is to

have any validity. On the other hand, reliability can be measured by many

characteristics (e.g., height) that may have no relationship to whether someone

can perform a job. For this reason, it is said, that reliability is a necessary but

insufficient condition for validity.


Criterion-Related Validation. One way of establishing the validity of a

selection method is to show that there is an empirical association between

scores on the selection measure and scores for job performance. If there is a
substantial correlation between test scores and job-performance scores,

criterion-related validity has been established. This correlation is referred to as

a validity coefficient.

Content Validation. When sample sizes are small, an alternative test-

validation strategy, content validation, can be used. Content validation is

performed by demonstrating that the items, questions, or problems posed by the

test are a representative sample of the kinds of situations or problems that occur

on the job. A test that is content valid exposes the job applicant to situations

that are likely to occur on the job. And then tests whether the applicant

currently has sufficient knowledge, skill, or ability to handle such situations.


Generalizability is defined as the degree to which the validity of a selection

method established in one context extends to other contexts. There are three

primary contexts over which we might like to generalize: different situations

(i.e., jobs or organizations), different samples of people, and different time

periods. Just as reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity, validity is

necessary but not sufficient for generalizability.


Utility is the degree to which the information provided by selection methods

enhances the bottom-line effectiveness of the organization. In general, the more

reliable, valid, and generalizable the selection method is, the more utility it will

have. On the other hand, many characteristics of particular selection contexts

enhance or detract from the usefulness of given selection methods, even when

reliability, validity, and generalizability are held constant.


Another organizational characteristic that affects the utility of a given test is the

nature of employee turnover (in terms of performance differences between

stayers and leavers). If those who leave the job tend to be low performers rather

than high performers, the utility of the test increases. Under these conditions,
testing allows the company to replace low performers with individuals that the

test indicates will be high performers.


There are also characteristics of a job that affect the utility of a given test. First,

the degree of difficulty of performing well on the job affects utility. For jobs

that have high base rates--that is, the percentage of randomly hired people who

could perform well--tests have little utility. Testing pays off primarily in

contexts where it is difficult to find high performers.


Second, where the economic consequences to an organization of failure versus

success on the job are great, testing has greater utility.


Legality


The final standard that any selection method should adhere to is legality. All

selection methods should conform to existing laws and existing legal

precedents. Our treatment there was broad and dealt with legal aspects in all

areas of human resource management. In this chapter, we will focus more

narrowly on issues that relate directly to personnel selection.


Methods of Selection


1.

Biodata


Biodata refers to biographical information about the candidate. Much of this

sort of information is gathered on application forms. Application forms, as with

other tools used for selection purposes should be clearly designed so that

selectors know how they are going to use the information when it is received.


Some organizations use this information to indicate a person`s group or

individual orientation, or to give added information on leadership ability in

example. I was captain of the hockey team).


Herriot, Glendinning and Wingrove (1984) found that selecting candidates on

the basis of application forms was a haphazard affair with candidates who filled

in the while spaces on the form standing a greater chance of selection because

filling in the spaces was equated with motivation.


2.

Group Methods


Roles


Many organizations are now interested in whether an employee will fit into an

existing group. Some organizations are therefore using Belbin`s work on team

roles (Belbin, 1981) not only to identify what roles exist at present within the

team and therefore what is the gap, but also to select a candidate with the

required role preference.


Problem Solving


A small group of 6-8 people is asked to solve a work-related problem in a

limited period of time.

Each individual may also be asked to feed back to the assessors the behaviour of

a chosen candidate, thus each individual would not only be asked to contribute

to solving the problem but they would be required to appraise another

individual.


The candidate will be assessed on:



Problem solving ability in the short and long term/creativity;



Ability to work well and contribute to a team situation;



Interpersonal skills;



Ability to listen, to appraise and assess others;



Leadership and chairing qualities.


3.

In-Trays

The exercise simulates what a manager might find in his or her in-tray and the

candidate is allocated a limited period of time - say 30 minutes ? in which to go

through the in-tray of memos, letters, reports and other documents and to make

appropriate written decisions. These decisions or suggested actions will be

communicated and explained to an assessor following the event.

The in-tray exercise will typically be assessing:





Ability to make appropriate decisions when under time pressure;



To deal with situations appropriately;



To be aware of the knock-on effect of decisions to other parties;



Ability to organize and prioritize


4.

Presentation



Each candidate is asked to write and present a piece of work to an audience.


Typically the presentation will be time limited and on a relevant topic. So, for

example, a person applying for a job as a manager of a multinational

organization who will be liaising and managing overseas staff might be asked to

present a 15 minute paper on:


ANAGING CULTURAL DIVERSITY`


The candidate will be assessed on:



Verbal and non-verbal presentation skills;



Relevant content;



Time management.


5.

Work simulation exercise



A typical work situation is simulated so that a candidate`s ability to do the job

effectively can be assessed. The alternative is to rely on what the candidate
says they would do in a given situation, but what or how they say they would

carry out a piece of work may be very different to what they would do in

practice.


The candidate is asked to comment on or answer questions which mirror the

type of activity which is involved in the job. For example, a prospective senior

manager may be asked to comment individually and in writing on last year`s

financial figures suggesting undertake a typing test, or a prospective television

newscaster may be asked to present a piece of news.


The candidate will be assessed on relevance of content.



6.

Repertory Grid Technique



Kelly (1955) developed the notion of personal construct psychology as a theory

of personality, which over the last five years has been developed for use in the

selection process. The technique allows the individual to make sense of his or

her world by identifying similarities and differences between sets of events in

his or her life and in this way develops personal constructs. Anderson (1990)

used the technique to elicit constructs, which relate to preferred tasks. The

repertory grid was elicited from a marketing manager and shows distinct

clusters: one is a liking for variety, challenge and responsibility for the

marketing function and the other is a dislike of closely supervised work, desk-

bound tasks and advertising responsibilities.


Kelly`s repertory grid is extremely useful when trying to uncover a candidate`s

real motivation and preferences and marks a new and exciting step forward in

the field of selection.


7.

Personality Assessment

The use of personality questionnaires in employee selection is not an area for

the amateur and certainly not an area in which to dabble.


Some users of this selection method find it an invaluable tool, others suggest

that even to try to define personality is difficult, therefore how can this illusory

characteristic be measured? Certainly the word personality` is much abused in

general use, not least in phrases such as film or TV personality`. Only recently

a student was overheard to say he was undertaking a personality test to see it I

have any`!.


There are now many psychometric self-report questionnaires on the market,

which purport to measure personality. It is possible to measure personality, it

must be possible to define it! So what is personality?



Jessup and Jessup (1975) define personality as:

That which makes one person different from another and includes all the

psychological characteristics of an individual . . . personality is used to describe

the non-cognitive and non-intellectual characteristics of an individual. It refers

more to the emotional make up of a person and is reflected in the style of his/her

behaviour rather than the quality of his/her performance.






Person






Situation

Behaviour




Bandura (1977) questions whether the trait approach to personality, or the

situation, explains the behaviour. Clearly if personality does not to a large
extent explain behaviour it may not be very useful to assess personality as part

of the selection process.


Bandura (1977) suggests that behaviour is a result of the person/situation

interaction, as illustrated above figure. This diagram suggests that both the

personality and the situation determine behaviour. So, for example, the

individual may have an extrovert personality but decide not to display this

characteristic in a particular situation, for example at a funeral.


8.

Interviews


A selection interview has been defined as a dialogue initiated by one or more

persons to gather information and evaluate the qualifications of an applicant for

employment. The selection interview is the most widespread selection method

employed in organizations.


Unfortunately, the long history of research on the employment interview

suggests that, without proper care, it can be unreliable, low in validity, and

biased against a number of different groups. Moreover, interviews are

relatively costly because they require at least one person to interview another

person, and these persons have to be brought to the same geographic location.

Finally, in terms of legality, the subjectivity embodied in the process often

makes applicants upset, particularly if they fail to get a job after being asked

apparently irrelevant questions.


Fortunately, more recent research has pointed to a number of concrete steps that

one can employ to increase the utility of the personnel selection interview.

First, HR staff should keep the interview structured, standardized, and focused

on accomplishing a small number of goals. That is, they should plan to come

out of each interview with quantitative ratings on a small number of dimensions
that are observable (e.g., interpersonal style or ability to express oneself) and

avoid ratings of abilities that may be better measured by tests (e.g.,

intelligence). In the words of one experienced interviewer for Johnson and Son

Inc., Gut feelings count, but the goal is controlled subjectivity.


The interview, as with any method of selection, should be a very thin slice

between what precedes and follows. It cannot be stressed enough that if you

don`t know what you are looking for, the interview will not help you to find it,

and if you do not know how to use the information following the interview, the

strengths of the process will be negated. The interview should be seen as a

camera ? it will take the picture, after you have pointed the Jens and framed the

shot!





Candidates



14.15 ?

9.30 ? 10.30 10.45 ? 11.45 12.00 ? 13.00 13.00 ? 14.15

15.15

Interviewer 1 (Subject:

1

2

3

Lunch

4

finance)
Interviewer 2 (Subject:
human resource

2

3

4

Lunch

1

management)
Interviewer 3 (Subject:

3

4

1

Lunch

2

technical skills)


Sequential Interview timetable

The interview can be:



One to one



Sequential



Panel



Most people are familiar with the one-to-one interview as an interviewee if not

as an interviewer, the sequential interview takes the one-to-one a step further

and is a series of interviews, usually utilizing the strengths and knowledge base
of each interviewer, so that each interviewer asks questions in relation to his or

her subject area of each candidate, as the candidates move from room to room.

This process therefore takes no longer than the traditional one-to-one interview.

A schedule for this type of selection method with three interviewers and four

candidates could be planned as in above figure.


The panel interview consists of two or more interviewers and has been known

to embrace as many as 15 interviewers. Any panel interview is less intimate

and more formal than the one-to-one but if handled and organized well it can

provide a wealth of information; if not, it can not only make the candidate feel

ill at ease and unsure about where to look and to whom to address the answer to

each question, but the coordination of interviewers` questions ? that is who is

going to ask what and in what order ? can become a nightmare for the

interviewers.


The setting of the interview is very important and attention should therefore be

paid to noise level, avoiding interruptions, lighting, the candidate`s reception,

and the dress and manner of the interviewer.


The physical positioning of furniture is also instrumental in dictating the tone of

the interview and is therefore important in creating the appropriate atmosphere,

but it should be remembered that however informal you make the process, or as

a candidate however informal the process appears to be, interviewers expect the

candidate to play a certain role or to know their place.



All interviews should be well planned; the exchange is not an invitation to a

coffee morning. It is essential that interviewers plan the sequence as well as the

content of events. The interviewer should only talk for approximately 20% of

the time thus allowing the interviewee to talk for 80% of the interview.


Sparing use should be made of closed questions. Open questions elicit

more information from the candidate and candidates prefer them (Jablin

and McComb, 1984).

-- An example of a closed question would be: You did enjoy your last

job didn`t you?`

-- An alternative open question would be: What did you enjoy about

your last job (and why)?`



It has been estimated that the interviewer usually makes a decision

within the first 4 ? 9 minutes and then seeks evidence to support the

decision.



Interviewers recognize and like a candidate who is similar to them (e.g.

the same social background, school, education, geographical location).

One interviewer even related that he immediately felt a rapport when he

noticed that both he and the candidate took artificial sweeteners in their

coffee!



Practice at interviewing does not improve performance. The old adage:

I`ve been interviewing for 30 years therefore I must be good at it` does

not hold true. Practice alone does not improve performance.



Interviewers are affected by contrast so that an average performer seen

after an exceptionally weak one will be rated highly. Also the last

candidate tends to be remembered more clearly than the others.



Interviewers place more emphasis on negative rather than positive

information (Webster, 1964).



The success of a selection interview when unstructured is only slightly

better than chance.



Arvey and Campion (1982) found that the interview was vulnerable to

racial and other forms of prejudice but pointed out that it is a valuable
way of predicting important characteristics such as social and verbal

fluency.



Interviewers are affected by physical cues, e.g. spectacles = more

intelligent.



Only 10% of communication is through the content of the spoken word,

50% is from voice tone, level, accent, etc., and 40% from body

language. How you say something is therefore as important as what you

say!



Following the last point, remember that non-verbal communication is

extremely important. Interviewers like animated (but controlled) body

language. Candidates should consider posture, facial gestures and

intonation in the voice.



Interviewees like the interview and feel cheated if they don`t have one.



The interview is an ideal opportunity for the organization to sell itself.



The interview is a cheap method of selection compared to other methods

(although a mistake if a poor choice is made when it can be expensive).



Panel interviewers have difficulty in agreeing on the evaluation of the

same candidates when asked to make confidential choices (Wagner,

1949) but when asked to make a group decision the most influential

panel member seems to be deferred to, thus invalidating the whole idea

of having a panel.



Employers in the UK often express concern about the fairness of

psychometric tests and yet continue to use and seem to feel relatively

happy about the interview, when in fact there is considerable evidence of

bias and discrimination in the interview process and poor evidence of

validity (Arvey, 1979).


Despite many criticisms of the interview as a method of selection it

remains extremely popular. It is worth remembering that the criticisms

are largely about the interviewer(s), not the process (Lopez, 1975).


Employment Tests


Employment tests are devices that assess the match between applicants and job

requirements. Some are paper-and-pencil tests; others are exercises that

simulate work conditions. A math test for a bookkeeper is an example of a

paper-and-pencil test, and the account-executive test at Merrill Lynch is an

example of a simulation. Tests are used more frequently for candidates for jobs

that are paid by the hour than for management openings because hourly jobs

usually have a limited number of skills that are more easily tested. A survey by

the Society for Human Resource Management found that 84 percent of

employers include testing in their employment decision-making procedures.

Management and staff jobs are often too complex to be tested fairly and

economically.


Considerable care must be taken in testing foreign nationals whether they are

applying for a job in the home country or elsewhere. First and most obvious,

the test may have cultural biases, including slang terms that are unfamiliar.

Second, laws in other countries may prevent some types of testing. Third,

because of cultural differences, social standing, or political connections, taking

a test may be seen as an insult.


Many employment tests exist but each type of test has only limited usefulness.

The exact purpose of a test, its design, its directions for administration, and its

applications are recorded in the test manual, which should be reviewed before a

test is used. The Chart (A) that follows gives a brief explanation of several

different types of tests and their application.


Application

Psychological Tests

Measures personality or temperament (executives,

nuclear power, security)

Measures personality or temperament (executives,

managers, supervisors)

Measures personality or temperament (sales

personnel)

Measures logic and reasoning ability (executives,

managers, supervisors)

Measures creativity and judgement ability

(engineers)

Measures personality components

Knowledge Tests

Measures knowledge of leadership practices

(managers and supervisors)

Measures verbal, spatial, numeric, and other

aptitudes and dexterity (job seekers at
unemployment offices)

Performance Tests

Measures physical coordination (shop workers)
Measures spatial visualization (draftsmen and

draftswomen)

Measures ability to work with numbers and names

(clerks)

Measure a sample of on-the-job demands

(managers, professionals)

Graphic Response Test

Measures physiological responses to questions

(police, retail store workers)

Attitude Tests

Measures attitudes about theft and related subjects

(retail workers, securities employees, banks)

Measures attitudes about work and values (entry-

level, low-income workers)

Medical Tests

Measure the presence of illegal or performance

affecting drugs (athletes, government employees,
equipment operators)

Identifies genetic predispositions to specific

medical problems

Measures and monitors exposure to hazardous

chemicals (miners, factory workers, researchers)


Psychological tests: These tests measure personality or temperament. They

are among the least reliable tests. Validity suffers because the relationship

between personality and performance is often vague or nonexistent.


Knowledge tests: These tests are more reliable because they determine

information or knowledge. A math test for an accountant and a weather test for

a pilot are examples. But specialists must be able to demonstrate that the

knowledge is needed to perform the job. The Miami trucking company

example is a case where the tested knowledge (reading at an advanced level)

was unneeded.

Performance tests: These tests measure the ability of applicants to do some

parts of the work for which they are to be hired, for example, a typing test for

typists. Validity is often assumed when the test includes a representative

sample of the work the applicant is to do upon being hired. However, if the test

discriminates against a protected group, it must be backed by detailed validation

studies. Merrill Lynch`s test is likely to be considered valid (as discussed in

connection with content and construct validity under rational validation

approaches because it includes samples of the work an account representative

would be expected to do.


Attitude and Honesty tests: These tests are being used in some circumstances

to learn about the attitudes of applicants and employees toward a variety of job-

related subjects. Since the passage of the Employee Polygraph Protection Act

in 1988, polygraph (lie detector) tests have been effectively banned in

employment situations. In their place, attitude tests are being used to assess

attitudes about honesty and, presumably, on-the-job behaviors. Attitude tests

also reveal employee attitudes and values about work. The Work Opinion

Questionnaire, for example, has been effectively used in predicting the job

performance of entry level low-income workers.

Medical tests: These tests have grown in popularity in recent years. Through

an analysis of urine, hair, or blood samples, laboratories are able to screen for

the presence of drugs. Concern about employee drug abuse has spurred IBM,

American Airlines, Storer Communications, and many others to require all job

applicants to pass a urinalysis for marijuana and cocaine.


As technology has improved, testing for genetic defects or predispositions has

become technically and financially feasible. Genetic screening may alert

employers to those with higher chances of developing specific diseases.

Medical monitoring of diseases such as acquired immune deficiency syndrome

(AIDS) or of the buildup of toxic chemicals such as lead or mercury among

workers may alert employers to high-risk employees or shortcomings in health

standards in the workplace.


Employment tests are limited to factors that can be easily tested and validated.

Other items, which may not be measurable through testing, may be equally

important, such as enthusiasm and motivation.

Selection interviews are the most widely used selection technique. Their

popularity stems from their flexibility. They can be adapted to unskilled,

skilled, managerial, and staff employees. They also allow a two-way exchange

of information: Interviewers learn about the applicant, and the applicant learns

about the employer.


Barriers to Effective Selection


There are a number of selection methods available which all attempt to predict

future work behaviour and potential. The key to an effective method of

selection is that it should not only provide more information about the candidate

but that it should be relevant, useful and comparable between candidates. There
is clearly little point in putting candidates through a vigorous selection

procedure which provides masses of information only to find that most of its is

irrelevant in relation to the job in hand, and that the rest is relevant but difficult

or even impossible to compare across candidates. There is an important

distinction or difference between how much information is produced and how

relevant it is. In this case more does not necessarily mean better.


Evaluative standards


The effectiveness of selection methods will depend upon a number of factors

which Muchinsky (1986) refers to as the evaluative standards`. The usual

standards or measures against which methods are selected are as follows:




Fairness



Cost



User-friendliness



Acceptability (to the candidate and the organization)



Validity and reliability



Applicability


Some evaluative standards` are easier to assess than others. Clearly the need to

quantify cost` as it affects and constrains the process is self-evident, but not

easy to quantify when considering both direct and hidden costs (such as the cost

of selecting the wrong` candidate or the opportunity cost of selector`s time.

Other constraints and issues such as perception`, fairness` and validity and

reliability` are not only difficult to assess but even the importance of the

concept may not be immediately obvious.




























































MODULE - II


PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL


Introduction


Performance appraisal is the process by which organizations evaluate

individual job performance. When it is done correctly, employees, their

supervisors, the HR department, and ultimately the organization benefit by

ensuring that individual efforts contribute to the strategic focus of the

organization. However, performance appraisals are influenced by other

activities in the organization and in turn affect the organization`s success.


Performance appraisals are about employee performance and accountability. In

a globally competitive world, companies need high performance. At the same

time, employees need feedback on their performance as a guide to future

behaviour. This need is most evident among newcomers who are trying to

understand their jobs and the work setting. Longer-service workers also want

positive feedback on the good things they do, although they may resent

corrective feedback that feels like criticism. Supervisors and managers must

evaluate performance in order to know what actions to take. Specific feedback

enables them to help with career planning, training and development, pay

increases, promotions, and other placement decisions.


HR departments use the information gathered through performance appraisals to

evaluate the success of recruitment, selection, orientation, placement, training,

and other activities. Although informal and ongoing appraisals on a day-to-day

basis are necessary to a smooth operation, these methods are insufficient for the

HR department`s needs. Formal appraisals are needed to help managers with

placement, pay, and other HR decisions. In a study of 324 organizations in

southern California, for example, 94 percent had a formal appraisal system.

This survey research revealed that the major uses of appraisals were for

compensation (74.9 percent), placement improvement (48.4 percent), feedback

(40.4 percent), placement-related decisions (40.1 percent), and documentation

(30.2 percent).

Yet even in otherwise well-managed organizations, appraisals are associated

with problems. Supervisors and managers often view formal appraisals as un-

needed. They already know how their employees are performing, so why spend

precious time going through some form developed by the HR department? In

addition, the design of the system may encourage unintended actions by

employees and supervisors, as happened in one part of Xerox.



Uses of Performance Appraisals




Performance improvement. Performance

feedback

allows

the

employee, the manager, and personnel specialists to intervene with

appropriate actions to improve performance.



Compensation adjustments.

Performance

evaluations

help

decision makers determine who should receive pay raises. Many firms

grant part or all of their pay increases and bonuses on the basis of merit,

which is determined mostly through performance appraisals.



Placement decisions.

Promotions, transfers, and demotions are

usually based on part or anticipated performance. Often promotions are

a reward for past performance.



Training and development needs. Poor performance may indicate a

need for retraining. Likewise, good performance may indicate untapped

potential that should be developed.



Career planning and development.

Performance

feedback

guides career decisions about specific career paths one should

investigate.



Staffing process deficiencies.

Good or bad performance implies

strengths or weaknesses in the personnel department`s staffing

procedures.


Informational inaccuracies. Poor performance may be a symptom of

ill-conceived job designs. Appraisals help diagnose those errors.



Equal employment opportunity. Accurate performance appraisals

that actually measure job-related performance ensure that internal

placement decisions are not discriminatory.



External challenges. Sometimes performance is influenced by factors

outside the work environment, such as family, financial, health, or other

personal matters. If these factors are uncovered through appraisals, the

human resource department may be able to provide assistance.



Feedback to human resources.

Good

or

bad

performance

throughout the organization indicates how well the human resource

function is performing.


As this example emphasizes, on organization cannot have just any appraisal

system; the system must be effective, accepted, and properly used. With those

conditions met, performance appraisal systems can identify needed

improvements in HR information related to job analysis and design, human

resource planning, staffing, orientation and placement, training and

development, and career planning. The performance appraisals are crucial for

focusing employees on strategic goals and objectives and for developing

replacement summaries for succession planning and learning objectives for

training and development.


The appraisal approaches must identify performance-related standards, measure

those criteria, and then give feedback to employees and the HR department. If

performance standards or measures are not job-related, the evaluation can lead

to inaccurate or biased results, harming the managers` relationship with their

employees and violating equal employment opportunity rulings. Without

feedback, improvement in human behaviour is not likely and the department
will not have accurate records in its HR information system on which to base

decisions ranging from job design to compensation.






Role of HR Department


The HR department usually designs and administers the company`s

performance appraisal system. Centralization ensures uniformity. Although the

HR department may develop different approaches for managers, professionals,

workers, and other groups, uniformity within each group is needed to ensure

comparability of results. The department itself seldom evaluates actual

performance, however. According to one study, the employee`s immediate

supervisor performs the evaluation 92 percent of the time because the

immediate supervisor is often in the best position to make the appraisal.

However, multiple raters--including peers and even subordinates, sometimes

called 360-degree evaluations because the person is being evaluated from all

directions--offer additional perspectives at progressive companies such as

General Electric, General Motors, and AT&T. At AT&T, for example, 800

high-level executives have rated their superiors and have been rated in return.

As jobs and teams become more fluid, some companies use electronic mail (E-

mail) to track who people interact with and who should be the evaluators:


The appraisal should create an accurate picture of an individual`s typical job

performance. Appraisals are not done just to uncover poor performance;

acceptable and good results also must be identified so that they can be

reinforced. To achieve this goal, appraisal systems should be job-related and

practical, include standards, and use dependable measures. Job-related means

that the system evaluates critical behaviors that constitute job success. If the
evaluation is not job-related, it is invalid. Without validity and reliability, the

system may discriminate in violation of equal opportunity laws.


Evaluators and employees understand a practical system. A complicated,

impractical approach may cause resentment, confusion, and nonuse.


A standardized system within the organization is helpful because it allows the

establishment of uniform practices. A standardized system often has well-

thought-out performance standards and measures.


Some Problems in Associated with Appraisal System


1. Legal Constraints


Performance appraisals must be free of Illegal discrimination. Whatever form

of evaluation the HR department uses, it should be both reliable and valid.

Placement decisions may be challenged because they violate equal employment

laws or other laws. Cases legal implications also arise when decisions involve

layoffs, demotions, or failure to promote.


2. The halo effect. The halo effect occurs when the rater`s personal opinion

of the employee influences the measurement of performance. For example, if a

supervisor likes an employee, that opinion may distort estimates of the

employee`s performance. This problem is most severe when raters must

evaluate personality traits (instead of behaviors), their friends, or people they

strongly dislike.


3. The error of central tendency. Some raters do not like to rate employees

as effective or ineffective, and so they distort the ratings to make each employee

appear average. On rating forms, this distortion causes evaluators to avoid

checking extremes, such as very poor or excellent. Instead, they place their
marks near the center of the rating sheet. Thus the term error of central

tendency has been applied to this bias. HR departments sometimes

unintentionally encourage this behaviour by requiring raters to provide written

justification of extremely high or low ratings.


4. Leniency and strictness bias. The leniency bias results when raters tend

to be easy in evaluating the performance of employees. Such raters see all

employee performance as good and rate it favourably. The strictness bias is the

opposite; it results from raters being too harsh in their evaluations. Sometimes

the strictness bias results because the rater wants others to think he or she is a

tough judge of people`s performance. Both leniency and strictness errors

more commonly occur when performance standards are vague.


5. Cross ?cultural biases. Every rater holds expectations about human

behaviour that are based on his or her culture. When people are expected to

evaluate others from different cultures, they may apply their cultural

expectations to someone who has a different set of beliefs or behaviors. In

Denmark, for example, many employees and organizations resisted the use of

formal performance appraisals for many years on the grounds that they were

inappropriate for Danes. In many Asian cultures the elderly are treated with

greater respect and are held in higher esteem than they are in many western

cultures. If a young worker is asked to rate on older subordinate, this cultural

value of respect and esteem may bias the rating. Similarly, in some Arabic

cultures women are expected to play a very subservient role, especially in

public. Assertive women may receive biased ratings because of these cross-

cultural differences. With greater cultural diversity and the movement of

employees across international borders, this potential source of bias becomes

more likely.


6. Personal prejudice.

A rater`s dislike for a group or class of people

may distort the ratings those people receive. For example, some HR

departments have noticed that male supervisors give undeserved low ratings to

women who hold traditionally male jobs. Sometimes rater is unaware of their

prejudice, and this makes such biases more difficult to overcome. Nevertheless,

specialists should pay close attention to patterns in appraisals that suggest

prejudice. Such prejudice prevents effective evaluations and may violate anti-

discrimination laws. Whereas the halo bias affects one`s judgment of an

individual, prejudice affects one`s judgment of entire groups. When prejudice

affects the ratings of protected class members, this form of discrimination can

lead to equal employment violations.



7. The recency effect. When one uses subjective performance measures,

ratings are affected strongly by the employee`s most recent actions. Recent

actions--either good or bad--are more likely to be remembered by the rater.


8. Reducing rater bias. When subjective performance measures must be

used, biases can be reduced through training, feedback, and the proper selection

of performance appraisal techniques. Training for raters should involve three

steps. First, biases and their causes should be explained. Second, the role of

performance appraisals in employee decisions should be explained to stress the

need for impartiality and objectivity. Third, if subjective measures are to be

used, raters should apply them as part of their training.


Appraisal Methods:


I. Past-Oriented Appraisal Methods


The importance of performance evaluations has led academicians and

practitioners to create many methods to appraise past performance. Most of
these techniques represent a direct attempt to minimize particular problems

found in other approaches. No single technique is perfect; each has advantages

and disadvantages.


Past-oriented approaches have the advantage of dealing with performance that

has already occurred and to some degree can be measured. The obvious

disadvantage is that past performance cannot be changed. But when their past

performance is evaluated, employees can get feedback that may lead to renewed

efforts at improved performance. The most widely used appraisal techniques

that have an orientation to the past include:




Rating scales



Checklists



Forced choice method



Critical incident method



Ranking method



Forced distributions



Point allocation method



Paired comparisons


1. Rating Scales


Perhaps the oldest and most widely used form of performance appraisal is the

rating scale, which requires the rater to provide a subjective evaluation of an

individual`s performance along a scale from low to high. The evaluation is

based solely on the opinions of the rater, and in many cases the criteria are not

directly related to job performance. Although subordinates or peers may use it,

the form is usually completed by the supervisor, who checks the most

appropriate response for each performance dimension. Responses may be given
numerical values to allow an average score to be computed and compared. The

number of points attained may be linked to salary increases--so many points

equal a raise of some percentage. Other advantages of this method are that it is

inexpensive to develop and administer, raters need little training or time to

complete the form, and it can be applied to a large number of employees.


The disadvantages are numerous. A rater`s biases are likely to be reflected in a

subjective instrument of this type. Specific criteria may be omitted to make the

form applicable to a variety of jobs. For example, maintenance of equipment

may be left out because it applies to only a few workers, although for some

employees it may be the most important part of the job. This omission and

others tend to limit specific feedback. These descriptive evaluations also are

subject to individual biases and interpretations. When specific performance

criteria are hard to identify, the form may rely on irrelevant personality traits

that dilute the meaning of the evaluation. Like the subjective evaluations in the

General Motors case discussed earlier, rating scales may prove to be

discriminatory.



A Sample Rating Scale for Performance Evaluation




Dependability



Initiative



Overall output



Attendance



Attitude



Cooperation


2. Checklists


The checklist method requires the rater to select words or statements that

describe the employee`s performance and characteristics. Again, the rater is

usually the immediate superior. However, with or without the rater`s

knowledge, the HR department may assign weights to different items on the

checklist depending on each item`s importance. The result is called a weighted

checklist. The weights allow the rating to be quantified so that total scores can

be determined. The weights for each item are in parentheses but usually are

omitted from the form the rater sees. If the list contains enough items, it may

provide an accurate picture of employee performance. Although this method is

practical and standardized, the use of general statements reduces its job-

relatedness.


The advantages of a checklist are economy, ease of administration, the limited

training required of raters, and standardization. The disadvantages include

susceptibility to rater biases (especially the halo effect), use of personality

criteria instead of performance criteria, misinterpretation of checklist items, and

the use of improper weights by the HR department. Another disadvantage is

that this approach does not allow the rater to give relative ratings. For example,

employees who gladly work overtime get the same score as do those who put in

overtime unwillingly.





Employee works overtime when asked



Employee keeps workstation or desk well organized



Employee cooperatively assists others who need help



Employee plans actions before beginning job


3. Forced Choice Method


The forced choice method requires the rater to choose the most descriptive

statement in each pair of statements about the employee being rated. Often both

statements in the pair are positive or negative.



1.

Learns quickly .......................Works hard.

2.

Work is reliable.....................Performance is a good example for

others.

3.

Absent too often.....................Usually tardy.


Sometimes the rater must select the best statement (or even pair of statements)

from four choices. However the form is constructed, HR specialists usually

code the items on the form into predetermined categories such as learning

ability, performance, and interpersonal relations. Then effectiveness can be

computed for each category by adding up the number of times each category is

selected by the rater. The results then show which areas need further

improvement. Again, the supervisor is usually the rater, although subordinates

or peers may provide evaluations.


The forced choice method has the advantage of reducing rater bias because

some employees must be rated as superior to others. This approach also is easy

to administer and fits a wide variety of jobs. Although practical and easily

standardized, the general statements may not be specifically job-related. Thus

this method may have limited usefulness in helping employees improve their

performance. Even worse, an employee may feel sighted when one statement is

checked in preference to another. For example, if the rater checks learn

quickly in number 1 above, the worker may feel that his or her hard work is

being overlooked. This method is seldom liked by either the evaluator or the

employee because it provides little useful feedback.


4. Critical Incident Method

The critical incident method requires the rater to record statements that describe

extremely good or bad behavior related to job performance. The statements are

called critical incidents and are usually recorded by the supervisor during the

evaluation period for each subordinate. Recorded incidents include a brief

explanation of what happened. Several typical entries for a laboratory assistant

appear. Both positive and negative incidents are recorded and classified (either

as they occur or later by the HR department) into categories such as control of

safety hazards, control of scrap material, and employee development.


5. Ranking Method. The ranking method requires the rater to place each

employee in order, from best to worst. The HR department knows that certain

employees are better than others, but it does not know by how much. The

employee ranked second may be almost as good as the one ranked first or may

be considerably worse. This method is subject to the halo and recency effects,

although rankings by two or more raters can be averaged to help reduce biases.

Its advantages include ease of administration and explanation.


6. Forced Distributions.

Forced distributions require raters to sort

employees into different classifications, usually with specified proportions in

each category. The criterion shown overall performance, but this method can be

used for other performance criteria, such as reliability and control of costs. As

with the ranking method, relative differences among employees are not known,

but this method does overcome the biases of central tendency, leniency, and

strictness errors. Some workers and supervisors at American Express`s Western

Regional Operations Center strongly dislike this method because some

employees received lower ratings than they or their supervisor-raters thought

were correct. However, forced distributions required that some employees be

rated low.
7. Point allocation method. The point allocation method requires the rater to

allocate a fixed number of points among employees in the group. Good

performers are given more points than are poor performers. The advantage of

this method is that the rater can recognize the relative differences between

employees, although the halo effect and the recency bias remain.


8. Paired comparisons.

Paired comparisons force raters to compare each

employee with all the other employees in the same group who are being rated.

The basis for comparison is usually overall performance. The number of times

each employee is rated superior to another can be summed to develop an index.

The employee who is preferred the most is the best employee on the criterion

selected. A. Wilson is selected nine times and is the top-ranking worker.

Although subject to halo and recency effects, this method overcomes the

leniency, strictness, and central errors because some employees must be rated

higher than others.


II. Future-Oriented Appraisal Methods


Using past-oriented approaches is like driving a car by looking through the

rearview mirror; you know only where you have been, not where you are going.

Future-oriented appraisals focus on future performance by evaluating an

employee`s potential or setting future performance goals. In practice, many

past-oriented approaches include a section for the supervisor and employee to

record future plans. Four common approaches to evaluating future performance

are:




Self-appraisals



Management by objectives



Psychological appraisals


Assessment centers






1. Self-Appraisals


Getting employees to conduct a self-appraisal can be a useful evaluation

technique if the goal of evaluation is to further self-development. When

employees evaluate themselves, defensive behavior is less likely to occur and

self-improvement is thus more likely. When self-appraisals are used to

determine areas of needed improvement, they can help users set personal goals

for the future. The risk is that the employee will be too lenient or too critical of

his or her performance. If self-appraisals are used among a diverse or

international workforce, home-office HR specialists must be aware of cultural

differences that may lead to evaluations that over- or understate performance

and future plans. Obviously, self-appraisals can be used with any evaluation

approach, past- or future-oriented. The important dimension of self-appraisals

is the employee`s involvement in and commitment to the improvement process.


2. Management by Objectives


The heart of the management by objectives (MBO) approach consists of goals

that are objectively measurable and mutually agreed on by the employee and the

manager. Since an employee gets to participate in setting his or her goals, the

expectation is that employees will be motivated to achieve those goals.

Moreover, since they can measure their progress, employees can adjust their

behavior to ensure attainment of the objectives. However, to adjust their

efforts, employees must receive performance feedback on a timely basis.


Objectives also help the employee and supervisor discuss the specific

development needs of the employee, which can make future training and

development efforts appear more relevant to the employee. When done

correctly, performance discussions focus on the job`s objectives, not on

personality variables. Biases are reduced to the extent that goal attainment can

be measured objectively.



In practice, MBO programs have encountered difficulties. The objectives are

sometimes too ambitious or too narrow or are not set participatively but

imposed by the superior. The result is frustrated employees or overlooked areas

of performance. For example, employees may set objectives that are

quantitatively measurable to the exclusion of subjectively measurable ones that

may be equally important. The classic illustration is quantity versus quality of

work. When employees and managers focus on subjectively measured

objectives, special care is needed to ensure that biases do not distort the

manager`s evaluation.


3. Psychological Appraisals


Some organizations employ industrial psychologists on a full-time or retainer

basis. When psychologists are used for evaluations, they assess an individual`s

future potential, not that individual`s past performance. The appraisal normally

consists of in-depth interviews, psychological tests, discussions with

supervisors, and a review of other evaluations. The psychologist then writes an

evaluation of the employee`s intellectual, emotional, emotional, motivational,

and other work-related characteristics that involve individual potential and may

predict future performance. The estimate by the psychologist may relate to a

specific job opening for which the person is being considered, or it may be a

global assessment of the person`s future potential. From these evaluations,
placement and development decisions may be made to shape the person`s

career.


Because this approach is slow and costly, it is usually reserved for executive-

level decisions or for bright young managers who others think have

considerable potential within the organization. Since the quality of these

appraisals depends largely on the skills of the psychologist, some employees

object to this type of evaluation, especially if cross-cultural differences exist.


4. Assessment Centers


Assessment centers are another method of evaluating future potential, but they

do not rely on the conclusions of one psychologist. Assessment centers are a

form of standardized employee appraisal that relies on multiple types of

evaluation and multiple raters. They are usually applied to managers who

appear to have the potential to perform more responsible jobs. Often the

members in the group first meet at a hotel or training facility. During their stay,

they are individually evaluated.


The process puts selected employees through in-depth interviews, psychological

tests, personal background histories, peer ratings by other attendees, leaderless

group discussions, ratings by psychologists and managers, and simulated work

exercises to evaluate their future potential. The simulated work experiences

usually include in-basket exercises, decision-making exercises, computer-based

business games, and other job like opportunities that test the employee in

realistic ways. These activities usually are performed during a few days at a

location physically removed from the jobsite. During this time, the

psychologists and managers who do the rating attempt to estimate the strengths,

weaknesses, and potential of each attendee. They then pool their estimates to

arrive at a conclusion about each member of the group.

Assessment centers are both time-consuming and costly. Not only are the

candidates away from their jobs, with the company paying for travel and

lodging, the evaluators are often company managers who are assigned to the

assessment center for short periods. These managers are often supplemented by

the psychologists and HR professionals who run the center and also make

evaluations. Some critics question whether the procedures used are objective

and job-related, especially since rater biases may affect the subjective opinions

of attendees. Nevertheless, assessment centers have widespread use, and

researchers are finding ways to validate the process.


The results assist management development and placement decisions. From the

composite ratings, a report is prepared on each attendee. This information goes

into the HR information system to assist HR planning (particularly the

development of replacement charts) and other HR decisions. Interestingly,

research indicates that the results of assessment centers constitute a good

prediction of on-the-job performance. Unfortunately, this method is expensive

since it usually requires both a separate facility and the time of multiple raters.

Consider how the process works at Johnson Wax:


Requirements of Effective Appraisal Systems


Legally and scientifically, the key requirements of any appraisal system are

relevance, sensitivity and reliability. In the context of ongoing operations, the

key requirements are acceptability and practicality.


Relevance


This requirement implies that there are clear links (1) between the performance

standards for a particular job and an organization`s goals and (2) between the
critical job elements identified through a job analysis and the dimensions to be

rated on an appraisal form.


Sensitivity


This requirement implies that a performance appraisal system is capable of

distinguishing effective from ineffective performers. If its is not, and the best

employees are rated no differently from the worst employees. The appraisal

system cannot be used for any administrative purpose.


Reliability


A third requirement of sound appraisal systems is reliability. In this context,

reliability refers to consistency of judgement. For any given employee,

appraisals made by raters working independently of one another should agree

closely. In practice, ratings made by supervisors tend to be more reliable than

those made by peers. Certainly raters with different perspectives (e.g.,

supervisors, peers, subordinates) may see the same individual`s job performance

very differently. To provide reliable data, each rater must have an adequate

opportunity to observe what the employee has done and the conditions under

which he or she has done it. Otherwise, unreliability may be confused with

unfamiliarity.


Acceptability


In practice, acceptability is the most important requirement of all, for it is true

that human resource programs must have the support of those who will use

them. Or else human ingenuity will be used to thwart them. Unfortunately,

many organizations have not put much effort into garnering the front-end

support and participation of those who will use the appraisal system.

Practicality


This requirement implies that appraisal instruments are easy for managers and

employees to understand and use.


Conclusion


These are the five basic requirements of performance appraisal systems, and

none of them can be ignored. However, since some degree of error is inevitable

in all employment decisions, the crucial question to be answered in regard to

each appraisal system is whether its use results in less human, social, and

organizational cost than is currently paid for these errors. The answers to that

question can result only in a wiser, fuller utilization of our human resources.

















MODULE - III

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

TRAINING


For any organization to perpetuate itself and achieve growth, there is a basic

need for developing its manpower resources. It is one thing to possess

knowledge but yet another thing to put it to effective use. It is essential to help
develop skills and also update the knowledge. Especially, in a rapidly changing

society, employee training and development is not only an activity that is

desirable but also an activity that an organization must commit resources to if it

is to maintain a viable and knowledgeable work force.



Meaning and Purpose of Training



Training is a process of learning a sequence of programmed behavior. It is

application of knowledge. It gives people an awareness of the rules and

procedures to guide their behavior. It attempts to improve their performance on

the current job or prepare them for an intended job. According to Edwin D

Flippo, the purpose of training is to achieve a change in the behavior of those

trained and to enable them to do their jobs better, in order to achieve this

objective, any training programme should try to bring positive changes in:




Knowledge ? it helps a trainee to know facts, policies, procedures and

rules pertaining to his job.



Skills ? it helps him to increase his technical and manual efficiency

necessary to do the job and



Attitude ? It moulds his behavior towards his co-workers and

supervisors and creates a sense of responsibility in the trainee.



Importance of Training


The reasons why training is important are:

1.

Training enables the management to face the pressure of changing

environment

2.

Training usually results in an increase of quantity and quality of output.

3.

Training leads to job satisfaction and higher morale of the employees.

4.

Trained workers need lesser supervision.
5.

Trained workers enable the enterprise to face competition from rival

organizations.

6.

Training enables employees to develop and rise within the organization

and increase their earning capacity.

7.

It moulds the employees` attitudes and helps them to achieve better co-

operation within the organization.

8.

Trained employees make better economic use of materials and

equipment resulting in reduction of wastage and spoilage.

9.

Training instructs the workers towards better job adjustment and reduces

the rate of labor turnover and absenteeism.



Benefits to Organization



A programme of training becomes essential for the purpose of meeting the

specific problems of a particular organization arising out of the introduction of

new lines of production, changes in design, the demands of competition etc. the

major benefits of training to an organization are:



1.

Higher Productivity: - Training can help employees to increase their

level of performance on their present assignment. Training increases the

skill of an employee in the performance of a particular job. Increased

performance and productivity, because of training, are most evident on

the part of new employees who are not yet fully aware of the most

efficient and effective ways of performing their job. An increase in skill

usually helps to increase both quantity and quality of output.

2.

Better Organizational Climate: - An endless chain of positive result

from a well planned training programme. Increased morale, less

supervisory pressures, improved product quality, increased financial
incentives, internal promotions etc., result in better organizational

climate.

3.

Less Supervision: - Training does not eliminate the need for

supervision, but it reduces the need for constant supervision.

4.

Prevents Manpower Obsolescence: - Manpower obsolescence is

prevented by training as it fosters the initiative and creativity of

employees. An employee is able to adapt himself to technological

changes.

5.

Economic Operations: - Trained personnel will make economical use

of materials and equipment. This will reduce wastage in materials and

damage to machinery and equipments.

6.

Prevents Industrial Accidents: - Proper training can help to prevent

industrial accidents.

7.

Improve Quality: - Trained employees are less likely to make

operational mistakes thereby increasing the quality of the company`s

products.

8.

Greater Loyalty: - A common objective of training programme will

mould employees` attitudes to achieve support for organizational

activities and to obtain better cooperation and greater loyalty. Thus,

training helps in building an efficient and loyal work force.

9.

To Fulfill Organisation's Future Personnel Needs: - When the need

arises, organizational vacancies can be staffed from internal sources, if

an organization initiates and maintain an adequate training programme.

10.

Standardisation of Procedures: - Trained employees will work

intelligently and make fewer mistakes when they posses the required

know-how and have an understanding of their jobs.


Benefits to Employees


1.

Personal Growth: Employees on a personal basis gain individually

from training. They secure wider awareness, improved skill and

enhanced personal growth.

2.

Development of New Skills: Training improves the performance of the

employees and makes them more useful and productive. The skill

developed through training serves as a valuable personal asset to the

employee. It remains permanently with the employee.

3.

Higher Earning Capacity: By imparting skills, training facilitates

higher remuneration and other monetary benefits to the employee. Thus,

training helps each employee to utilize and develop his full potential.

4.

Helps Adjust with Changing Technology: Old employees need

refresher training to enable them to keep abreast of the changing

methods, techniques and use of sophisticated tools and equipment.

5.

Increased safety: Proper training can help prevent industrial accidents.

Trained workers handle the machined safely. Thus, they are less prone

to industrial accidents. A safe work environment also leads to a more

stable mental attitude on the part of the employees.

6.

Confidence: Training creates a feeling of confidence in the minds of

employees. It gives safety and security to them in the organization.



DEVELOPMENT



Executive or Management Development


Executive or management development is a long-term educational process

utilizing a systematic and organized procedure by which managerial personnel

learn conceptual and theoretical knowledge. Development is a related process. It

covers not only these activities, which improve job performance, but also those,

which bring about growth of the personality; help individuals in the progress

towards maturity and actualization of their potential capacities so that they

become not only good employees but also better human beings. In

organizational terms, it is intended to equip persons to earn promotional and

hold greater responsibility. Training a person for a bigger and higher job is

development.


According to Harold Koontz and Cyril O`Donnell, Developing a manager is a

progressive process in the same sense that educating a person is. Neither

development nor education should be thought of as something that can ever be

completed, for there are no known limits to the degree one may be developed or

educated. Manager development concerns the means by which a person

cultivates those skills whose application will improve the efficiency and

effectiveness with which the anticipated results of a particular organizational

segment are achieved


According to G.R.Terry, Management development should produce change in

behavior which is more in keeping with the organization goals than the previous

behavior. The change frequently consists of a number of small steps resulting

from training but the cumulative effect is considerable. It is also basic that a

terminal behavior is identified before the development efforts starts.


Thus, executive or management development implies that there will be a change

in knowledge and behavior of the individual undergoing development

programme. The individual will not only be able to perform his job better but
also increase his potential for future assignments through the acquisition,

understanding and use of new knowledge, insights and skills. Self-development

is an important concept in the whole programme of management development.



Need and Importance of Executive Development


In this age of professionalisation of management, importance of executive

development cannot be minimized. Executive talent is the most important asset

of an organization. According to Peter Drucker, an institution that cannot

produce its won managers will die. From an overall point of view the ability of

an institution to produce managers is more important than its ability to produce

goods efficiently and cheaply. The need for executive development is felt

because:

1.

There is a shortage of trained mangers. The organization has to develop

the talented employees and maintain an inventory of executive skills to

meet the future demands.

2.

The performance of a company depends upon the quality of its

managers. Executive development, therefore, is of paramount

importance to have effective and desired managerial talents to meet the

organizations demand.

3.

Obsolescence of managerial skills is another factor, which calls for

continuous executive development. A manager must continuously

update himself to successfully meet new challenges as they occur.



Objectives of Executive Development


1.

To ensure a steady source of competent people at all levels to meet

organizational needs at all times.
2.

To prevent managerial obsolescence by exposing the managers to new

concepts and techniques in their respective fields of specialization.

3.

To prepare the present employees for higher assignments so that they

may be promoted from within.

4.

To develop a second line of competent managers for future

replacements.

5.

To promote a high morale and good organizational climate.



Methods of Executive Development


Methods of executive development can be classified into two broad categories:


1.

On-the-job methods and

2.

Off-the-job methods


1.

On-the-job Methods


a)

Coaching: On-the-job coaching is a procedure by which a superior

teaches job knowledge and skills to a subordinate.

b)

Job Rotation: The trainee is periodically rotated from job to job so that

he acquires a general background of different job.

c)

Special Projects: Under this method, a trainee is assigned to a project

that is closely related to the objectives of his department. The trainee

will study the problem and make recommendations upon it.

d)

Committee Assignments: Under this method, an adhoc committee is

constituted and is assigned a subject to discuss and make

recommendations. The committee will make a study of the problem and

present its suggestion to the departmental head.


2.

Off-the-Job Methods
a)

Role-Playing: Role-playing techniques are used for human relations and

leadership training. Under this method, a conflict situation is artificially

constructed and two or more trainees are assigned different parts to play.

Its purpose is to give trainees an opportunity to learn human relations

skills through practice and to develop insights into one`s own behavior

and its effect upon others.

b)

Case Study: Under this method, the trainees may be given a problem to

discuss which is more or less related to the principles already taught.

This method gives the trainee an opportunity to apply his knowledge to

the solution of realistic problems.

c)

Conference Training: The trainee as a member can learn from others.

The conference is ideally suited to learning about problems and issues

and examining them from different angles.

d)

Management Games: A management game is a classroom exercise in

which teams of students compete against each other to achieve common

objectives. The game is designed to be a close representation of real-life

conditions. .

e)

Sensitivity Training or T Group Training: it is an experience in

interpersonal relationships, which results in change in feeling and

attitudes towards oneself and others.

f)

Special Courses: The executives may be required to attend special

courses, which are formally organized by the enterprise with the experts

from educational institutions.





Steps in Training Programme


Training programme is a costly and time-consuming process. The training

procedure discussed below is essentially an adoption of the job instruction-

training course. The following steps are usually considered as necessary.


1.

Discovering or identifying training needs.

2.

Preparing the instructor or getting ready for the job

3.

Preparing the trainee

4.

Presenting the operation

5.

Try out the trainees` performance

6.

Follow-up or rewards and feedback


1.

Discovering or Identifying the Training Needs

A training programme should be established only when it is felt that it would

assist in the solution of specific problems. Identification of training needs must

contain three types of analysis:


(a)

Organisational Analysis ? determine the organisation`s goals, its

resources and the allocation of the resources as they relate to the

organisational goals.

(b)

Operations analysis ? focuses on the task or job regardless of the

employee doing the job.

(c)

Man analysis ? reviews the knowledge, attitudes and skills a person

must acquire to contribute satisfactorily to the attainment of

organisational objectives.


Armed with the knowledge of each trainee`s specific training needs,

programmes of improvement can be developed that are tailored to these needs.

The training programme then follows a general sequence aimed at supplying the

trainee with the opportunity to develop his skills and abilities.


2.

Preparing the Instructor


The instructor is the key figure in the entire programme. He must know both

the job to be taught and how to teach it. The job must be divided into logical

parts so that each can be taught at a proper time without the trainee losing

perspective of the whole. This becomes a less plan. For each part one should

have in mind the desired technique of instruction, i.e., whether a particular point

is best taught by illustration, demonstration or explanation.


3.

Preparing the Trainee


This step consists of:

(a)

Putting the learner at ease

(b)

Stating the importance and ingredients of the job and its relationship to

work flow;

(c)

Explaining why he is being taught

(d)

Creating interest and encouraging questions, finding out what the learner

already knows about his job or other jobs.

(e)

Explaining the why` of the whole job and relating it to some job the

worker already knows

(f)

Placing the learner as close to his normal position as possible and

(g)

Familiarizing him with the equipment, materials, tools and trade terms.


4.

Presenting the Operations


This is the most important step in a training programme. The trainer should

clearly tell, show, illustrate and question in order to put across the new

knowledge and operations. There are various alternative ways of presenting the

operation namely, explanation, demonstration etc. An instructor mostly uses

the method of explanation. In addition one may illustrate various points

through the use of pictures, charts, diagrams and other training aids.
Demonstration is an excellent device when the job is essentially physical in

nature. The following sequence of training may be followed:


(a)

Explain the sequence of the entire job

(b)

Do the job step by step according to the procedure

(c)

Explain each step that he is performing

(e)

Have the trainee explain the entire job

Instructions should be given clearly, completely and patiently; there should be

an emphasis on key points and one point should be explained at a time. The

trainee should also be encouraged to ask questions in order to indicate that he

really knows and understands the job.


5.

Try out the Trainees' Performance


Under this, the trainee is asked to go through the job several times slowly,

explaining each step. Mistakes are corrected, and if necessary, some

complicated steps are done for the trainee the first time. Then the trainee is

asked to do the job, gradually building up skill and speed. As soon as the

trainee demonstrates that he can do the job in the right way, he is put on his

own. The trainee, through repetitive practice, will acquire more skill.


6.

Follow-Up


The final step in most training procedures is that of follow up. This step is

undertaken with a view to testing the effectiveness of training efforts. The

follow up system should provide feedback on training effectiveness and on total

value of training system. It is worth remembering that if the learner hasn`t

learnt, the teacher hasn`t taught.






















MODULE - IV

COMPENSATION MANAGEMENT



Concept


The literal meaning of compensation is to counter ?balance. In the case of

human resource management, compensation is referred to as money and other

benefits received by an employee for providing services to his employer. Money

and benefits received may be in different forms ? base compensation in money

form and various benefits, which may be associated with employees services to

the to the employer like provident fund, gratuity insurance scheme and any

other payment which the employee receives or benefits he enjoys in lieu of such

payment. Cascio has defined compensation as follows; compensation includes

direct cash payments, indirect payments in the form of employees to strive for

higher levels of productivity.


Compensation Policy compensation policy is derived from organisational

strategy and its policy on overall human resource management. In order to make

compensation management to work effectively, the organisation should clearly

specify its compensation policy, which must include the basis for determining
base compensation, incentives and benefits and various types of perquisites to

various levels of employees .The policy should be linked with organisational

philosophy on human resources and strategy. Besides many external factors,

which impinge on the policy, must also taken care of.


Job analysis and evaluation .Job analysis provides basis for defining job

description and job specification with the former dealing with various

characteristics and responsibilities involved in a job and dealing and the latter

dealing with qualities and skills required in performer, job analysis also

provides base for job evaluation which determines the relatives worth of various

jobs in the organisation, The relative worth of various jobs determines the

compensation packages attached with each job.

Analysis of Contingent Factors. Compensation plan is always formulated in

the light of various factors, both external and internal, which affect the

operation of human resource management system. Various external factors are

conditions of human resource market, cost of living, level of economic

development, social factors, pressure of trade unions and various labour laws

dealing with compensation management. Various internal factors are

organisation`s ability to pay and employee`s related factors such as work

performance, seniority, skills, etc. These factors may be analysed through

wage/salary survey.


Design and Implementation of Compensation Plan. After going through the

above steps, the organisation maybe able to design its compensation plan

incorporating base compensation with provision of wage/salary increase over

the period of time, various incentive plans, benefits and perquisites.

Sometimes, these are determined by external party, for example, pay

commissions for Govt. employees as well as for public sector enterprises. After

designing the compensation plan, it is implemented. Implementation of
compensation plan requires it`s communication to employees and putting this

into practice.


Evaluation and Review. A compensation plan is not rigid and fixed one but is

dynamic since it is affected by a variety of factors which are dynamic.

Therefore, compensation management should have a provision for evaluating

and reviewing the compensation plan. After implementation of the plan, it will

generate results either in terms of intervening variables like employee

satisfaction and morale or in terms of end-result variable like increase of

productivity. However, this latter variable is more important. The evaluation of

compensation plan must be done in this light. If it does not work as intended,

there should be review of the plan necessitating a fresh look.



Job Evaluation

For fixing compensation to different jobs, it is essential that there is internal

equity and consistency among different job holders. Job evaluation aims to

provide this equity and consistency by defining the relative worth of different

jobs in an organisation. Job evaluation is the process of determining the relative

worth of different categories of jobs by analyzing their responsibilities and

consequently, fixation of their remuneration. International Labour Organisation

(ILO) has defined a job evaluation as follows:


Job evaluation is an attempt to determine and compare demands which the

normal performance of a particular job makes on normal workers without taking

into account the individual performance of the workers concerned.


The definition of job evaluation provided by ILO has been adopted by others.

For example, French has defined job evaluation as follows:

Job evaluation is a process of determining the relative worth of the various

jobs within the organisation, so that differential wges may be paid to jobs of

different worth. The relative worth of a job means relative value produced. The

variables which are assumed to be related to value produced are such factors as

responsibilities, skills, efforts and working conditions.



Objectives of Job Evaluation

The basic objective of job evaluation is to determine the relative contributions

that the performance of different jobs makes towards the realization of

organisational objectives. This basic objective of job evaluation serves a

number of purposes which may be grouped into three categories: wage and

salary fixation, restructuring job hierarchy and overcoming anomalies.


Wage and Salary Fixation. The basic principle of wage and salary fixation is

that it should be based on the relative contributions of different jobs and not on

the basis of who the job holders are. If this principle is adopted, the first

requirement is to identify the likely contributions of different jobs. This is what

job evaluation precisely does. It provides the information about what is the

worth of a job in terms of its contributions to the achievement of the

organisational effectiveness. From equity point of view, this method is more

appropriate.

Restructuring Job Hierarchy. Job evaluation helps in restructuring job

hierarchy. Job hierarchy refers to arranging various types of jobs in the order of

their importance wither on ascending basis or descending basis. Sometimes, job

hierarchy becomes too lengthy creating administrative problems and creating

organisational problems by increasing the number of levels in the organisation.

In today`s context, more emphasis is being put on flat structure instead of tall
one. Job evaluation exercise can be undertaken to reduce the number of job

levels by merging closely related jobs together. For example, successive Pay

Commissions appointed by Govt. of India have recommended reduction in

number of pay scales by merging two or more scales into one in order to reduce

their number in job hierarchy.


Overcoming Anomalies. Job evaluation, if carried on periodically and

objectively, helps in overcoming various anomalies which may develop in an

organisation over the period of time with regard to compensation management.

Knowles and Thompson have identified that there are following anomalies and

evils which may develop in an organisation and may be overcome by job

evaluation.


1.

Payment of high wages and salaries to persons who hold jobs and

positions not requiring great skill, effort and responsibility;

2.

Paying beginners less than that they are entitled to receive in terms of

what is required of them;

3.

Giving a raise to persons whose performance does not justify the raise;

4.

Deciding rates of pay on the basis of seniority rather than ability;

5.

Payment of widely varied wages and salaries for the same or closely

related jobs and positions; and

6.

Payment of unequal wages and salaries on the basis of race, sex,

religion, or political differences.






Problems in Job Evaluation

Like any other technique of human resource management, job evaluation is not

free from certain shortcomings and limitations. Various problems involved in

job evaluation may be grouped into two categories: technical and operational.


Technical Problems. There are some technical problems involved in effective

job evaluation, which are of the following nature.


1.

Job evaluation establishes hierarchy of jobs based on their worth.

Though there are various methods developed for this purpose, these are

not completely objective. For example, often the question is asked:

Should grass-cutters (gardeners) get more than gas-cutters (welders)`?

Similar such questions may be raised if there is lack of objectivity.


2.

Another problem in establishing job hierarchy through job evaluation

comes in the form of changing profile of job factors because of changes

in environmental variables such as technology, social structure and

processes, and international impact. Therefore, a job hierarchy, which

may be workable at one point of time, may not work at another point of

time. Thus, in order to make job evaluation effective, it should be

undertaken at regular intervals.


3.

Job evaluation is a costly and technical exercise. Therefore, many

organisations do not prefer to take it in a formal way. Rather, they

prefer to go through prevailing practices.


Operational Problems. Besides the technical problems, there are some

operational problems too in job evaluation. These are of the following types:


1.

Linking jobs, based on job evaluation, and wages and salaries is not

completely possible because of the operation of several forces in the
environment. There are substantial differences between job factors and

the factors emphasized by the human resource market. Often it has been

observed that these external factors change with the time, e.g.,

previously, engineers were the highest earners but now the sequence is

followed by medicos, MBAs and now information technology

professionals in ascending order through over the period of time, their

job factors have remained the same.


2.

Job hierarchy created through job evaluation may create human

problems in an organisation particularly if it has been taken for the first

time and results into fundamental differences as compared to the

existing system. In such a situation, job evaluation may face resistance

from the employees.


3.

Job evaluation is, generally, suited to large organisations where human

resource management system has been formalized. In comparatively

smaller organisations, this may not result in much advantages.


The existence of various problems in job evaluation does not mean that it

should not be undertaken. In fact, this should be undertaken. The problems

identified above indicate that suitable safeguards should be provided while

undertaking job evaluation to make it more productive.


Job Evaluation and Performance Appraisal

Sometimes, a misplaced perception arises in which job evaluation is equated

with performance appraisal. This happens because of the contribution of both

in wage/salary determination. However, both are quite different concepts, use

different methods and have different objectives as shows:













Comparison of Job Evaluation and Performance Appraisal









Job evaluation

Performance appraisal



1. It evaluates the job and not the job holder.

1. It evaluates the job holder on the basis of
his job performance.

The job is evaluated before the job holder is

2. Evaluation is done after the employee has

appointed to perform the job.

performed the job.

3. Once job evaluation is done, it is applicable 3. Appraisal is a continuous process and is
over a number of years.

undertaken every year.

4. Evaluation is done by a committee

4. Appraisal is done by the concerned

consisting of specialists in the relevant areas.

superiors and other persons who know about
the employees concerned.

5. Job evaluation is not adopted by all

5. Appraisal is undertaken by all

organisations, even the large ones. They may

organisations in regular basis, either formally

follow the generally accepted prevailing

or informally.

practices.
6. The basic objective is to measure the

6. There are many objectives of appraisal:

relative worth of a job in comparison to other

wage/salary increase, promotion/demotion,

jobs.

transfer, assessing training needs.




Process of Job Evaluation

Job evaluation is process consisting of several steps. National institute of

Personnel Management has prescribed the following steps in job evaluation

process:


1.

Analyse and prepare job description

2.

Select and prepare a job evaluation plan.

3.

Classify jobs into different categories

4.

Install the job evaluation programme, and
5.

Maintain the programme.


A more comprehensive job evaluation process has been presented below:












Job Analysis







Job description

Job sepcification











Appointment of committee







for job evaluation
















Training for job evaluation





Defining criteria for job



evaluation










Selecting methods for job









evaluation





Job classification





Job Analysis

Job evaluation process starts with the base provided by job analysis. Job

analysis identifies various dimensions of a job in two forms: job description and

job specification. Job description provides responsibilities involved in the

performance of the job while job specification provides attributes required in

the job performer. Both these taken together provide information about various

factors involved in different jobs.












PERSONNEL INFORMATION SYSTEMS



Introduction


The Personnel Information System (PIS) deals with the flow of information

about people working in the organisation as well as about future personnel

needs. In most organizations, the system is concerned primarily with the five

basic sub-systems of the personnel functions: Recruiting, Placement, Training,

Compensation and Maintenance.



The information systems basically are computer based information systems for

planning and control for efficient use of Human Resource (HR) talent in

organisations. The Personnel / HR information system is an effective tool for

controlling cost and planning for the profit or returns in organisations by

making proper use of HR in the production and operations, financial, marketing

and other departments in organisations. To give an overview, the human

resource system and other systems used are described in this module.


Human Resource Management (HRM)


Human Resource Management (HRM) as opposed to the traditional view of

personnel function, and should be considered as a total system that interacts

with the other major systems of organisation ?marketing, production, finance

and the external environment and to service these major systems. Forecasting

and planning the personnel needs of an organisation, maintaining an adequate

and satisfactory work force and controlling the personnel policies and programs

of the company are the major responsibilities of HRM.


Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS) are the information systems that

support human resource management activities such as recruitment, selection

and hiring, job placement, performance appraisals, training and development.




HRM System


The business function emphasizes (1) Planning to meet the personnel needs of

the business, (2) Development of employees to their full potential and (3)

Control of all personnel policies and programs.


(a)

Employee skills inventory system uses the employee skills data from a

personnel database to locate employees within a company who have the

skills required for assignments.


(b)

Personnel record keeping system keeps track of additions, deletions and

other changes to the records in a personnel database.


(c)

Personnel requirement forecasting is to assure a business an adequate

supply of high quality human resources.


(d)

Computer based training programs and appraisals of employee job

performance are available.


(e)

It can also help to analyse the range and distribution of employee

compensation within a company.


Personnel Administration Data Systems (PADS)


These provide data needed to carry out the personnel administration

responsibilities of an employer. As the government legislates additional

protections and social programs, these responsibilities have increased and are

growing. Affirmative action requirements in USA, health and safety regulations

and pension plans regulation are many new sources of the employer`s

responsibilities.


Payroll and personnel planning data system (PPDS) are closely related to

PADS, all using the employee master file. Not only accessing the file, but

updating of file is often organized on a coordinated basis. Data items in the

employee file are updated by the payroll system not for self but also for PADS

and PPDS. Payroll provides the most effective way to capture the new data for

this updating activity.


Three types of PADS



(i)

Personnel status reporting systems (Files used are Employee file, Job

file).

(ii)

Personnel action systems (Files used are Employee file, Job file).

(iii)

Fringe benefit administration systems (Files used are Employee file,

Insurance claims file, Insurance accidents file).
All the three data systems parallel the common administrative responsibilities of

the personnel department in large organisations. There may be other

administrative responsibilities differing from the above in some of the

organisations which may give rise to other types of data system. Fringe benefit

systems may include a variety of systems like:



(i)

Group insurance,

(ii)

Pension,

(iii)

Profit sharing,

(iv)

Credit union,

(v)

Educational programs etc.


It is assumed here that a DBMS is used to manage the files involved in the

above systems. An integrated set of files is used by all the personnel

administration systems.


There are several files, but all the three systems access the employee file.

Putting at least a segment of the above files on a DASD is justified. The

employee file should be accessible by employee name, department, skill,

category, race, sex, other employee characteristics and the employee number

(File key). Secondary key access to the file should be possible. The employee

files have to b e segmented in view of the cost of storing employee data as a

result of increasing government regulation of the employment activity. The less

activity data can be placed in a segment stored on tape/mass storage systems.


The real time features needed for the most cost effective personnel action and

fringe benefit data system can be achieved by placing the jobs file, job applicant

file and the insurance file on DASK.


Employee file

This file provides data relevant to many aspects of employee supervision and

administration as well as for workforce planning. The data are grouped under

seven` headings:

(i)

Identification Data

(ii)

Benefit Data

(iii)

Payroll Data

(iv)

Termination Data

(v)

Performance Data

(vi)

Skills Data

(vii) Affirmative action Data


In some of the companies, these groups may differ according to their needs or

convenience. Affirmative action data is not required in India.


Termination data is also of not much prominence in India.


Identification data items serve to identify and locate a particular employee. The

data items that serve a significant business purpose is to be included. Employee

name, address and telephone number are important. Employee number is the

file key. To identify an employee in the organisation, whatever data items

required are to be included. Social security number in countries like USA is

required for tax purpose in the payroll data section of the record. Pointer to next

record with the same job and location code is used to make record retrieval

efficient in the personnel status reporting system.


Performance data items are used for supervisory and work force planning

purposes. An employee review system is in operation means that the immediate

supervisor reviews the employee`s performance periodically, rates them

according to an evaluation scheme and set goals for the next period. Job
performance statistics are to be maintained, concerning tardiness, unexcused

absences, idle time and performance relative to the standard hours set for each

piece of work.


Benefit data items are required to administer the employee benefit programs

such as life insurance, health care insurance, pension plans etc.


Skills data items are mainly for employee promotion and project assignment

purposes concerning the last position held prior to the employee`s current

position and the highest formal education level achieved. Additional detail on

work history and education should be placed in a separate file with pointers to

that file in the employee master file. Various skill codes can be used in the

employee file to summarise the employee skills.


Affirmative action data items (in USA) are facts required to prepare a defense

against changes of:


(i)

Unfair hiring (ii) Promotion and (iii) Termination practices


Access to these data items should be restricted to those responsible for

preparing such defenses. Termination data is primarily of value in controlling

unemployment insurance expenses. It has value in ad hoc workforce planning

and strategic studies.








Employee file data items


Data

Data items

(i) Identification Data

Employee number (File key), name, addresses, telephone

numbers, job code, location, shift, citizenship, pointer to

next record with same job and location code.

(ii) Performance Data

Last review date, review type, rating, promotability date,

next job, comment, next review date, days tardy, days

absent without prior approval, idle time as percentage of

total, earned hours as percentage of actual hours.

(iii) Benefit Data

Life insurance policy type, effective dates, coverage, pay

roll deduction amount, health insurance policy type,

effective dates, coverage, retirement plan type code,

eligibility date, plan service date, vesting date, pension

option date, projected retirement date, projected benefit

payment.

(iii) Skills Data

Lost job title, location, reported to name and position,

employer, last pay rate, date left position, reason, month

in position, pointer to job history file, highest formal

education level, year received highest degree, school

major, pointer to education history file, language skill

codes, technical skill codes, relocation constraint codes.

(iv) Payroll Data

See payroll system

(vi) Affirmative Action

Race, sex, age, religion

Data

(vii) Termination Data

Position at the time of termination, department, part time,

reported to name and position, pay rate, months in

position, pointer to job history file, date of termination,

date notice given, last day of work, termination type code

(voluntary, misconduct etc.), specific reason code, rehire

eligibility, exit interview, comments and codes, date

claim protest lodged, date of response to protest and
outcome, date of appeal.





Job Data


A job or position exists independent of the employees filling it, authorized in a

work force budget. It is usually defined by a job description that covers

qualifications, duties and responsibilities. The same job may exist in several

places in an organisation. Clerk-typist position may exist within many

departments of an organisation. To define the job specifically, a location code

and job code is usually required.


More than one employee may be required to perform a certain job in a particular

location. Another important data item is number of full-time and part-time

employees filling a particular job at a location.


The data items in this file are:



(i)

Identification Data

(ii)

Position description Data

(iii)

Budget Data and

(iv)

Performance Data


Location code, Job code and Shift form the file key.


The pointer to first employee record provides an efficient way to access the

employee file for employment control reporting purposes.


The position description data is useful to the personnel department in

advertising possible positions and screening applicants for those positions. The
cut-off data is the last date that the new application for an open position will be

accepted.


The budget data is for work force and cost control purposes. The actual labour

and labour related costs are compared to the budgeted figures, which are the

work force budget set by the work force planning system. Travel expenses,

fleet expenses and cost of operating supplies are the examples of labour related

operating expenses. The budget data in this file provides supporting data for the

labour and labour related expenses totals in the cost centre file. Pointers are

used as pointer to job file and pointer to next job` in the same cost centre.


Performance data items include measurement of the productivity and idle time

also, dated with a job as well as indications of job dissatisfaction and

supervisory problems.



Data

Data items

Identification Data

Location code, job code, shift (all three are file keys), cost centre

account number, job title, current number of employees, pointer to

first employee record.

Position Description Summary statement of duties, specific duties, experience,

Data

qualifications, educational qualifications, required references,

supervisor (name, job code, location) pay range and scale, number of

equivalent full time positions authorized, current unfilled positions,

cut-off date.

Budget Data

Labour hours (budget and actual) (past, current future periods)

Average labour cost/hour

Average related expense/hour

Total labour cost

Total related expense
Pointer to next job in same cost centre



Performance Data

Turnover rate, tardiness, frequency, absenteeism in frequency



Job applicants' file


The items are in four groups:


(i)

Applicant identification data

(ii)

Work history data

(iii)

Education data and

(iv)

Application status data

Here also the data classifications etc vary from company to company.


The application status data records the actions taken on the application.



Data

Data items

Applicant Identification Covers location code, shift, job code, applicant serial

Data

number (all in file keys) name, pointer to next name

in alphabetical order, address, telephone.

Work History Data

Covers last job title, location, reported to name and

position, employer (name, address, telephone), last

pay rate, date terminated (or still on job?), months in

position, months with the last employer, reason for

leaving, relocation constraint code.

Education Data

Covers highest formal education level, year received

highest degree, school, major, language skill code,

technical skill code.

Application Status Data Covers how was the applicant reached? Initial
screening results, Interview (date, interview results),

notification (date, notice sent, sender).



Accident file


This file contains a record for each reportable accident. It is usually an event

for which the organisation may be held responsible for damages (i) Either

directly or (ii) Through worker`s compensation insurance.


The data items are grouped into three categories:



(i)

Time and place data

(ii)

Characteristics data

(iii)

Effects data


The time and place data items define when and where the accident took place.

The characteristics data item describes the accident. The effects data items

record actions as a result of the accident and the costs incurred subsequently as

a result of the accident.



Data

Data items

(i) Time and Place Data Serial number (file key), date of accident, date

reported, time of accident, day of week, physical

location of accident, responsible cost centre,

responsible supervisor.

(ii) Characteristics Data Accident type code (preventable), huzzard condition

code, unsafe act, mechanical failure, vehicle number

(motor vehicle accident (MVA type), pavement

condition (if MVA type), weather, pointer to claims
and injury file.

(iii) Effects Data

Report made to government agencies, corrective

actions taken. Total property damage, total medical

expenses, total lost work time, other expenses.



Claims and injuries file


These may be insurance claims recorded by the organisation under insurance

policies or they may be claimed by employees under group insurance policies

managed by the organisation. Also, damages resulting from an accident for

which no insurance claims can be made are recorded. These are organized

although these are payment files of a claim. (The To data, From data, Basis

data, When data, Amount data).


The Basis data describes the injury or other event that is the basis for the claim.

Several claims must be set up to describe the events involved. Pointers are

suggested to link this record to the record in the accident file to describe the

accident and to link this claim to other claims arising from the same accident.



Data

Data items

(i) To-Data

Relation to organisation (employee, customer, etc),

name (both are file keys), employee number (if any),

address, telephone, social security number. (in USA)

(ii) From-Data

Payment by company, insurance policy involved,

general ledger account.

(iii) Basis-Data

Claim type, injury or damage code, description of

property damages, safeguards provided, safeguards

used, pointer to accident file, pointer to next claim for
same accident.

(iv) When-Data

Date claim filed, date of final settlement.

(v) Amount-Data

Expense type code, actual cost, insurance

reimbursement amount.



Data privacy and integrity



The employee file should have this important database consideration. So

also, the job applicant`s file, job master and insurance claims files. Both

the employer and employee are concerned about this data.


The privacy of pay-rate data is of concern to both the employer and employee.

From the employer point, he wants to safeguard this information from other

employees and competition (about the individual`s earning or job`s pay). So

also, the employee may not want others to know his earnings or other data items

such as medical reports. Both employer and employee may want access to this

data strictly controlled.



Personnel Status Reporting System



These systems make available data in the employee and job's files

for supervisory purposes. The systems are designed to leave the

needs of at least four groups:


(i)

Employment control reporting system (for managers who may need

facts about employees for a variety of reasons).
(i)

Employee profile (for employees who should be given an opportunity to

review and update the data concerning them in the files).

(ii)

Personnel data retrieval (for the personnel department, to perform many

of its functions, requires data concerning employees).

(iii)

Employment practice compliance reporting (for the government

agencies that enforce equal opportunity, affirmative action, or other

legislation and regulations pertaining to employees specially in the

USA).



Personnel Action Systems


As the name itself specifies, this system supports the activity of the personnel

department in taking actions on the following:


(i)

Filling job openings and

(ii)

Recording and reporting promotions, transfers, terminations and other

employee status changes


Two systems involved are:

(i)

Placement data system and

(ii)

Personnel activity reporting system.


The details vary from organisation to organization.


Equal employment opportunity and affirmative action concerns in USA are

making more extensive data systems necessary with respect to both the above

systems.


There is a growing need to document the search procedure employed to job

applicants and the decision procedure by which the new applicant is selected.
Promotions, transfers and termination need more justification than they were in

the past.

Placement data system


Placement data procedures center around the development and use of more

applicant files (generally more than one). Separate files are required for jobs

that require a new type of data items on job applicants. Example: Files may be

different for blue collar and white collar jobs. The applicant record in these

files contain the data items on the job application form and also items that

define the source and disposition of the application.


The applicant file is linked to jobs file by having the same file key, so that the

list of applicants for a desired job can be quickly retrieved. In the jobs file, the

available job openings are indicated by one or more data items to define how

many openings are there and the cut-off date for receiving the applications. It

also contains a description of job, experience, education pre-requisites, location,

travel and any other special requirements.


When a manager needs an employee for an existing position or for a new

position, he first fills out a job requisition from and sends it to the personnel

department. If the status of an existing employee is changed due to promotion,

transfer or termination, the action also should be reported to the personnel

department for updating the employee file.


After receiving the requisitions and personnel action reports by the personnel

department, the data is input to the jobs file and the employee file either through

a remote on-line terminal in the personnel department or submission of the data

to a key entry section.


Three more procedures may be carried out for job requisitions for the available

position.


(i)

By advertising internally using an in house organisation newspaper or a

special announcement procedure.

(ii)

By advertising externally in newspapers, private placement services,

state employment agencies and other media.

(iii)

A skill search of the employee file may be performed to locate qualified

candidates. This can be through DBMS that has a user-oriented retrieval

language. Such language permits the user to define the characteristics

required of an applicant for a specific job. The system examines each

record of the employee and retrieves the outputs of those that matches

with the requirements.


The personnel department reviews the applications received with regard to the

advertisement. Any tests required to know the candidate`s qualifications will be

administered by them and recorded on the application. Depending on the

volume of work, a special data system may be established for scoring and

recording tests. The applications are then encoded and entered into the

applicant file by the personnel department either on a remote data terminal or by

sending the data to the processing department for key entry.


The manager who has sent the requisition is the final authority to decide which

applicants to be interviewed. For those who were not qualified for interview, it

should be stated in their application the reasons and these should be returned to

personnel department for input of the reason into the applicant`s file. The

applicants identified by skill search or with recommendations from personnel

department are to be interviewed. The input to the applicant`s file includes

these.

The conclusion of each interview with manager`s recommendations should be

recorded and entered in the applicant`s file. A formal interview report is

produced or evaluation may be included on the application form. This can be

an input to the applicant`s file in the personnel department.


The record of a successful applicant is used to establish an employee master

record for the new employee. A procedure to do this can be programmed and

stored in the database and activated by the personnel department, using a single

command typed in at a remote on-line terminal and done as a batch procedure.


The records in an applicant file concerning a job which has been filled should

be removed from the active applicant`s file and placed in a history file, stored in

a less expensive, newer storage medium-magnetic tape. History file provides a

complete record as to how each job opening is filled, useful whenever changes

of bias or inept management ever have to be answered.


The system should link the applicant file to the job`s and the employee files and

provide the data needed by the personnel department and management in

carrying out recruitment programs and retain detailed recruitment activity

records.



Personnel activity reporting system


This procedure set records changes an employee status and produce reports

periodically (generally on a weekly basis), based on which the personnel

department initiates follow up activities. The reports are produced from a file

containing personnel transactions of the recent ones. Whenever a permanent

data item in the master file record gets changed, the same is done through a
copy in the personnel transaction file, with a code indicating the type of change.

Eg: New hire, promotion, transfer, change of address etc. The procedure for

this can be programmed and automatically activated by DBMS or the file

management system. The personnel transaction file is sorted periodically by the

transaction code and the personnel activity reports are produced.



Compensation Systems


These are the primary mechanisms by which organisations endeavour to

influence employees behaviour. Most compensations systems are developed

with two broad goals in mind:


(i)

To produce the desired behaviours from employees and

(ii)

To accomplish the first goal within the limitations faced by the

organisations.


The first goal includes motivating employees to join the organization, to remain

with it and to perform well for it. The second goal focuses on the constraints or

limitations faced by most organisations, including their ability to pay, legal

constraints such as minimum wage regulations, labour unions and external

labour markets. (compensation levels for the internal labour pool are greatly

influenced by the market rate for similar jobs in the external market).


Compensation systems include more than just the rupees employers pay to

employees for their work. They include an employee`s wage or salary, benefits,

non recurring financial rewards (such as special commissions, prizes or profit

sharing) and non-economical rewards for working (such as a sense of

accomplishment of power from one`s job and the opportunity to socialize with
colleagues and peers). Its compensation system is a major way an organisation

conveys to its employees what it wants to be done and how they should behave.



The Employee Recruitment/Selection Process


Recruitment begins, by specifying human resource requirements (numbers,

skills mix, levels, time frame), which are the typical result of job analysis and

human resource planning activities. Conceptually (and logically) job analysis

precedes human resource planning, it is necessary to specify the work to be

done (task requirements) and the personal characteristics necessary to do the

work (knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics) before one can

specify the numbers and types of people needed to do the work. For example

recruitment and selection strategies for new employees are likely to differ

considerably depending on whether a companies objective in hiring; say a new

sales people is to identify candidates who are able to execute cold calls for

new customers as opposed to servicing, existing, long-term clientele.

The step followed in recruitment is initial screening, which is basically a rapid

rough selection` process. 60 years ago, when line supervisors, hired factory

workers outside the gates of a plant they simply looked over the candidates and

then pointed to various people. You, you, and you--the rest of you come back

on another day. That`s an example of initial screening and it was probably done

only on the basis of physical characteristics. The selection process following

initial screening is more rigorous. For example, physical characteristics alone

do not provide many clues about a person`s potential for management or for any

other kind of work for that matter. What are needed of course are samples of

behaviour either through tests and personal interviews or through the testimony

of others about a candidate as with reference checks.


Past the selection stage, we are no longer dealing with job candidates, we

dealing with new employees. Typically, the first step in the introduction to

company policies, practices and benefits (technically this is called

socialization`) is an orientation program. Orientation may take up several

hours or several weeks; it may be formal, informal, or some combination of the

two.


Placement occurs after orientation; placement is assignment of individuals to

jobs. In large firms, for example, individuals may be selected initially on the

basis of their potential to succeed in general management. After they have been

observed and assessed during an intensive management-training program,

however, the organization is in a much better position to assign them to specific

jobs within broader job families, such as marketing, production, or sales.

(There are instances in which employees are selected specifically to fill certain

positions; these are so-called one-shot selection placement program). The

technical expertise and the resources necessary to implement optimal placement

programs (select, orient, then place) are found mostly in very large

organisations, such as the military.


Once new employees are selected, oriented, and placed, they can be trained to

achieve a competent level of job performance.

Finally, performance appraisal provides feedback to employees regarding their

past and present job performance proficiency, as well as a basis for improving

performance in the future. The first time a new employee`s performance is

appraised, it is like pushing the button that starts a continuous loop, more

precisely a continuous feedback loop comprising the employee`s performance,

the manager`s appraisal of it, and the communication between the two about

performance and appraisal.


Of course, all the phases of recruiting and selecting employees are interrelated.

But the final rest of all phases comes with the appraisal of job performance.

There is no point in reporting that, say, 150 possible candidates were recruited

and screened, that 90 offers were extended, and that 65 candidates were hired

and trained if the first appraisal of their performance indicates that most were

inept. You must always remember that when you evaluate the performance of

new hires, you are doing so within the context of a system, a network of human

resource activities, and you are really appraising recruitment, selection, and

training, among other HRM activities.


Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS )


Human resource information system has become a part of all large

organisations. It is a computerized system that aids in the processing of

information relating to human resource management. It is a device, designed to

fulfill the manpower information, needs of the organisation. HRIS helps

managers in decision-making in respect of promotion, wage fixing, recruitment,

training and development. The inputs of HRIS include the information relating

to employees, their abilities, qualifications, potentialities, creative instincts, age,

pay scales, various jobs in the organisation, their required skill and

qualifications to do them, the number of employees and executives manning

various positions, organisational objectives, policies and procedures etc. This

information is loaded into the system. This data is processed into the most

useful information required by the managers.

This HRIS is not only prepared for an industrial, service or government

organisation but also for the entire city, district, state or country. In order to

eliminate human resource problem of any kind, HRIS comes to the rescue and

provides the services of hiring human resources, maintaining the complete
record of human resources. It can at any moment show the supply of human

resources available. The figure below shows how the HRIS works.









INPUTS



Feedback

Control

TRANSFORMATION



OUTPUT

































Inputs: The input of HRIS includes information related to employees such as

education, age, experience, training, present status, present salary, whether

promoted or not, organisation`s policy past and present, procedures past and

present and other necessary detailed information relating to the human resources

in the organisation. The computerized human resource information system in

all respect superior to manual system, which is time consuming and not so cost

effective. The most important benefit of the system is that the information is

available immediately as and when required.


Transformation: The information fed to the computer can be transformed into

more meaningful and necessary information that is exactly required by the

organisation. This is the conversion stage of computerized HRIS. The

information transformed into meaningful calculation is very useful to the

managers and organisation as well. This works as a decision support system,

which aids in making appropriate decisions.

Output: Output refers to the printouts of the transformed material from the

computer printer like salary statement, report on performance of an employee,

budget estimates, etc. All these can be had in the form of printouts, terminal

screens etc. A well knit HRIS acts as a worthy decision support organism of a

very high quality. The high quality output must be accurate, relevant,

consistent, readable and comprehensive.


Feedback and Control: Whether the output obtained is relevant and useful or

not must be known. The method of ensuring it is known as feedback. Feedback

establishes control over the system.



Advantages of HRIS


1.

It gives accurate information.

2.

It does fast processing of information

3.

It works as a valuable tool to strategic planning and its implementation

4.

It acts as a decision support system

5.

It is time efficient

6.

It establishes strong management control

7.

It is not very expensive
Lesson-1

Human Resource Information Systems


Introduction

Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS ) is an effort towards
speedy, effective and professionally handling of information on resources for
efficient management of Human Resource function. HRIS is a computerized
system used to acquire, store, analyze and distribute information regarding
an organization's human services and to provide services in the form of

information to the clients or users of the system.

Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS),. It merges HRM as a
discipline and in particular its basic HR activities and processes with the

information technology field,

Maintenance and updating of manual records system is a labor-intensive job
and transfer of data from one record to another increases the chance of
error which effects the accuracy and reliability of data held. The manual
records cannot provide all data of an employ at a time, different information
being stored in different files. It becomes difficult to provide a single
comprehensive picture of an employee on one record. Here HRIS plays a
competitive and comprehensive role to facilitate the user with the required

information at their fingertips.

Thus HRIS is a system that enables storing of information of Human
Resource in every aspect such as Personal, Academic, Qualification, Family,
Medical, Career and Performance Evaluation, Training & Development &
Wage and Salary of individuals. Unlike manual systems the HRIS enables
availability of all such information in a single screen. Reports on various
parameters can be generated with ease. Moreover reliability of such records

is assured.
The difficulty in maintaining manual records and their inability to provide the

'complete picture' can be stated as the two basics reasons gave the evolution of

HRIS. The voluminous data on employees, which is unfeasible to track

manually, has become easier to update at frequent intervals. Updating and

maintaining of manual records systems is labor intensive as well as costly

process and at same time increases the chance of error. HRIS tracks all the

aspects of employee administration perfectly while reducing chances of errors.



The Basic Need of HRIS is-

1.Efficiently storing each employee information and data for reference-
personal data management, pay roll accounting, benefits management and

planning.

2.Enabling informed decision making in day-to-day personnel issues,
planning, budgeting, implementing and monitoring Human Resource

function.

3.Providing data / returns to government and other public

4.Facilitating decision making in areas like promotion, transfer, nomination,
settling employees provident funds, retirement, gratuity, LTC, and earned

leave compensation.

5.Cutting costs.

6.Improving accuracy

HR functions were among the first to be automated maybe along with
accounting. HRIS grew over the years to take the shape of Employee
Relationship Management (ERM) tools, Knowledge Management portals &
Employee Portals. HR self help, e Learning and knowledge sharing are some
of the early benefits being reaped out of the system. A greater sense of
organizational bonding can achieve what traditional HR aimed at for ages -
lower employee turnover, high morale, effective personalized training & skill

retention.

Being the most implemented project in enterprises, the potential for these
applications is huge & can be gauged from the fact that every large
software vendor, be it in ERP or CRM is bringing out products in this
segment. BEA Systems (Weblogic Portal), Oracle (My Oracle), SAP (mySAP
Enterprise Portal), Siebel Systems (ERM group of applications), IBM
(Websphere Portal), PeopleSoft (PeopleSoft 8 HRMS) & Microsoft (Business

Portal) are some of the major players.


HRIS Management Process


HRIS system has three major functional components: Inputs, Data maintenance

and Outputs. Each of these is discussed below as to its role in the overall

system.



Input function:



The input function provides the capabilities needed to get human resource

data into the HRIS. Some of the first things that must be established are the

procedures and processes required to gather the necessary data. In other
words, where, when and how will the data be collected? Once collected they
must be entered into the system. Some information may require coding before
entering.





Once the data have been input they must be validated to ensure that they

are correct. Edit / validation tables can be used to determine if the data are
acceptable. These tables contain approved values against which the data are

automatically checked. The system should have the capability to easily update

and change the validation tables.



Data Maintenance function:



The data maintenance function is responsible for the actual updating the

data stored in the various storage devices. As changes occur in human resource

information, this information should be incorporated into the system, as new

data are brought into the system it is often desirable to maintain the old data in

the form of historical information.



Output Function:



The output5 function of an HRIS is the most visible and familiar one.

the reason is that the majority of HRIS uses are not involved with collating,

editing / validating and updating human resource data; Rather they are

concerned with information and reports to be used by the systems.

Most human resource reporting consists of the following:



1. Selecting a segment of the total population for further evaluation; the

selection is based on the values of such items as exempt / non-exempt,

salary grades/ classifications, age, sex, departments, continuous service

and so on.

2. Performing some type of calculations using the population previously

selected in item 1, such as calculating average salaries, average merit

increases and so forth.

3. Providing a report containing specific information regarding the selected

population and / or the calculation results.


The demand of the output function is the major factors determining the

particular type of the software to be used.



In addition to being able to produce a specific report on request the output

function should have the capability to provide and update a reports library.

A report library basically stores the program and historical data necessary to

generate reports that are periodically requested. This feature saves

substantial time by automatically updating the data needed to produce the

reports in the library.



Another desirable capability is they ability to generate turnaround

documents. Turnaround documents basically are simple reports that show

the current data values and provide a place to indicate any changes. They are

used to help solicit updates to the data.



Naturally the specific inputs, frequency of updates and reports required for

an organization HRIS will differ some what with each situation. However

the basic components and capabilities just discussed should apply in all

most all situations, regardless of size and complexity.







HR ?MANAGEMENT PROCESS-II:

Today`s organization is undergoing many structural changes that present

challenges for human resource managers. Downsizing, outsourcing,

rightsizing and reengineering cause some of these structural changes.

Downsizing is the laying off of large numbers of managerial and other

employees. As a result of downsizing, many companies are outsourcing
services that the human resource department previously provided.

Outsourcing refers to subcontracting work to an outside company that

specializes in that particular type of work. Some examples of services being

outsourced include 401(k) plan administration and management

development programs. Rightsizing is the continuous and proactive

assessment of mission-critical work a and its staffing requirements.

Rightsizing differs from downsizing in that it is an ongoing planning

process to determine the optimal number of employees in every area of the

organization. Other companies are implementing reengineering programs.

Reengineering programs. Reengineering refers to a fundamental rethinking

and radical redesign of business process to achieve dramatic improvements

in cost, quality, service, and speed. In essence reengineering usually results

in sweeping changes in management and organization structures.















Evolution of HRIS:



The first computerized human resource application in business took

place at General Electric in the early 1950s. A 1984 survey of 1000 personnel

journal subscribers, which yielded 434 usable returns, revealed that 99.7% of

the respondents used computers in one capacity or another in the human

resource function. A similar survey conducted in 1988 found that 99.8% of the

respondents had automated one or more Human resource function. This is quite
an evolution to have taken place in just a few decades. Undoubtedly computer

usage has increased since this last survey.



First Generation:



The first generation of computerized HRIS is involved the conversion of

manual information keeping system to computerized system. Often a large

external service bureau ran the resulting systems. In the case of very large firms

an in-house mainframe computer. Large, costly processor crunched pay roll and

other data and end uses had very limited access to the system. Data had moved

from the file cabinet to a mysterious mainframe. Human resource data were

now in the care of a computer group that was either in-house or contracted

outside. Requests from human resource personnel for information had to be

funneled through the computer group. This system did result in a significant

decrease in the time required to produce most reports, but it also made Human

Resource personnel feel depend on the computer group. Many Human resource

managers regretted not having direct access to their own data. Some even

longed for the old days of paper files.







Second Generation:



As the 1970 advanced, the second generation of the computerized HRIS

was initiated with the introduction of the Mini-computer. Mini-computers

handle a network of simultaneous uses and have multiple input and output

device. Mini computer facilitated the transition form strictly batch processing to

interactive processing.




The second generation of computerized HRIS was completed in the

early 1980s with the arrival of the personal computer. The low cost stand alone

pc moved data processing to the desktop. The Data Repository was moved to

the human resource professional desktop. Software proliferated and before long

the human resource record keeping function was within reach of every size of

organization. At the same time mainframe and mini computer system were

being made much more accessible and user-friendly. From a functional stand

point, however human resource managers were doing their job in the same basic

manner they always had. The one major difference was that computerization

allowed them to do more and to do it more rapidly.



Third Generation:



Moving the data repository from some mainframe or computer group to

the desktop caused a great deal of excitement in the human resource field.

Human resource professional began to see the possibility of new applications

for the computers. Rather than merely computerizing what had been done

manually, they visualized ways to use the computers to fundamentally changed

the way they performed the job. The basic idea was to integrate many of the

different human resource functions.





Software vendors observed the desires of human resource

professional and began to develop systems to integrate the various areas
within their applications. The result was the third generation of the
computerized HRIS, a feature rich, broad based, self-contained HRIS. The
third generation took system far beyond being mere data repositories and
created tools with which human resource professional could do much more.
The extent to which the organization has developed their HRIS varies from
organization

to

organization.


DISCUSSED QUESTIONS:

1Q. Explain the concept of HRIS and its basic Needs?

2Q. Discuss the Management Process of HRIS?

3Q. Explain about the evolution of HRIS?













Notes and Additional Readings



1.Gerson Safran, "Human Resource Information System," Canadian
Manager, September 1994, P.13

2.Samuel Greengard, "The next generation," Personnel Journal, March

1994, pp.40-46.

4. Much of this and the next two sections are drawn from bill leanord, "

The Myth of the integrated HRIS," Personnel Journal, September
1991, PP 113-115; and terry l. Hunter "How Client /Server Is
Reshaping the HRIS," Personnel Journal, July 1992, pp 38-46.
5. Morton E. Grossman and Margaret Magnus, " The Growing

Dependence on HRIS", Personnel Journal, September 1988,p.55

















Lesson-2

Flow of authority and responsibility














Communication process
The Flow of Communications at the Organizational:

Communication is much more than talking, speaking and reading. True
communication takes place when an understanding has been transferred from
one party or source to another. Therefore, communication can be defines as the
transfer of information that is meaningful to those involved.
In this light, each and every one of the human resource functions discussed
requires some degree of effective communication to succeed. For example,
think of the important role communication plays in career planning, recruiting
and performance appraisal. In all too many instances, Human resource
managers spend tremendous amounts of time developing very good programs,
only to subsequently do a poor job of communicating them. The end result is
often great programs that go largely unused.


The two dynamic systems of communication in business are internal and
External communications. But the emphasis is quite distinct.

In internal communications, emphasis is in presenting and interpreting facts. In
contrast, in external communications, emphasis is on promoting goodwill and
future business.

Internal Communications
The following is an example of a hierarchy chart. It shows the positions of
Superiors and subordinates in a company. All communication among the
employees is INTERNAL because they are co-workers.

A human resource Manager's first step in becoming an effective communicators
is to develop an appreciation for the importance of communication. The
problem is not that human resource managers tend to belittle the importance of
communication; rather, they often fail to think consciously about it.








ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE

Definition:

Organisational culture is defined as the shared values, norms and

expectations that guide organization members in terms of how to approach
their work and deal with each other and their customers.
Organisational Culture is a key determinant of staff satisfaction, intention to
stay and whether staff recommends they're organizational to others as good

place to work.

Role of HR

Contributes to the development of and the accomplishment of the

organization-wide business plan and objectives


Plays an integral role in organizational success via his knowledge about

and advocacy of people.



Contributes to the organization by constantly assessing the effectiveness

of the HR function and sponsors change in other departments.


Organization culture

Culture of the organization plays a key role in determining a structure that

would suit. The organization stance towards participation and risk-taking will

have an impact on the decision pertaining to number of levels and delegation of

authority. Congruence between culture and structure is important. Lack of

congruence can result in mixed signals across the organization. An example is

where an organization states an intention of providing an environment of

independence (autonomy)--and yet, has the most routine issues kicked up for a

decision. Such lack of congruence can result in senior and middle management

losing their effectiveness. To reiterate, it is important to ensure a match between

the culture and the structure.

It is also important to factor competencies of existing people while making

changes to structures. Can some of the existing people shoulder additional

responsibilities? Do some of them have the versatility to move to other

functions or divisions? Will the structural changes need hiring of people into

key positions because existing people do not have the necessary competency?
This needs to be handled well to enable the organization to settle into the new

structure and continue working with its objectives.

Changes in structure will result in changes in roles and responsibilities. The new

roles need to be defined with clarity; so do the changes in interfaces. For

example, let us consider the case of an organization that changes its customer

support operation from a cost centre to a profit centre. This could affect the

reporting relationships in the internal context and also the interfaces with the

customer. The responsibility and authority of the head of customer support will

change considerably. This could affect the systems and processes in the

organization. This is a case where a change in strategy results in changes in the

structure, systems and interfaces in the organization.

External factors

External factors need to be taken into account while evolving the structure.

Some of these may have been taken into consideration during the creation of the

business strategy. Aspects such as competition, duration of sales cycle,

complexity of the sale, risk factors due to the environment, etc, will affect

design of the structure.

All these aspects--internal and external--need to be taken into account while

designing or changing the structure. It is important to remember that the

structure is a means to achieving an end; the design of the structure is not an end

in itself. The reasons for the change need to be communicated across the

organization and people may need to be trained and coached. It takes time and

energy to implement changes in structure. Therefore, ownership across the

organization is necessary.
It does take a while for a new structure to settle down; however, the

environment keeps changing, business requirements change and there are many

factors (both internal and external) that can cause a misfit between the structure

and the business need. Flexibility becomes key in implementing structure

changes in a highly dynamic environment.



DATA CAPTURING FOR MONITORING & REVIEW

The Overriding purpose of any HRIS is to assist human resource managers and

other top managers in making sound decisions. If this is to be accomplished, the

HRIS must produce information that is useful to the organization.

Unfortunately, many human resource information systems are disappointments

to managers simply because they do not produce the types of information

management values. The problem is often that the managers designing the HRIS

do not have a thorough understanding of what constitutes quality information to

the users of the information.

If the information provided: (!) Accuracy,(2) Significance and relevance,

(3)Comprehensiveness, (4) Readability and visual impact, and (5) Consistency

of format.

Producing information that is of quality to the user obviously requires an

investment in time, effort and communication on the part of HRIS managers.

However, this investment can result in an information system that wins the

respect of top management and one it can depend on.

The evaluation should determine whether or not the HRIS has performed

up to its expectations and if the HRIS is being used to its full advantage. Some

basic performance issues can be addressed to help evaluate an HRIS.

!.Compare the time spent on data entry to the value of the reports

generated. Is this time well spent?
2.Compare the system response time for data entry and inquiry. Does the

screen come up immediately or is there a considerable delay?

3.Does the system have real-time, online and immediate update

capability If not the system is antiquated by today`s standards.

4.Is the HRIS interfaced or integrated with the payroll system? If the

HRIS is a stand-alone system that has data entry element that are duplicated and

entered on the payroll system, the answer to this question is no.

6. Does the system have the capability to produce reports that provide

answer to specific functional questions? For example can an individual

quickly receive information concerning the turnover rate in the finance

department?

7. Does the system use inquiry rather than pulling employees files to

answer questions? If files must be pulled the system inquiry capabilities

have not been properly designed.

8. Does the system generate the proper type of information? A good HRIS

should generate more adhoc, on request reports that regular monthly-

detailed reports.

9. Analyses the cost to implement and maintain the current system, This

includes such things as machine and software costs, maintenance

agreements, supplies and hourly salaries of data entry operators and

programmers. How do these costs rate against the time saved by the

system?

Addressing the preceding questions should indicate whether the organization

has a useful HRIS and if the HRIS is being used to its full advantage. Such an

evaluation may also reveal a need to show end users how to better utilize the

system.



Discussion Questions:
1(Q). Explain the Flow of Athority and responsibility by depicting the chart?

2(Q) Explain the procedure of communication process?

3(Q) Define organizational culture and explain its role?

4(Q) Explain the concept of data capturing for monitoring and review?



Notes and Additional Readings:

1.WilliamI.Travis,How to justify a Human Resource Information System,

Personnel Journal, February 1988,pp 83-86:Greengard,The Next Generation,

2.Much of this section is adapted form Sidney H.Simon,The HRIS: what

capabilities Must It Have? Personnel, September-October 1983,pp36-49.

3.Joe Pasqualetto, Personnel Computing: Make the HRIS More Effective,

Personnel Journal, May 1990,pp,92-94











Lesson :3

Behaviour Patterns of HR & Other Managers:

The recent global economic slowdown and its impact on the Indian software

industry, provides us with an opportunity to review the state of the Human

Resources (HR) function in a highly people-intensive business. Looking back,

one can clearly distinguish two phases of evolution in the HR function. The first
phase, which was dominated by the extraordinary decade-long growth in the

Indian software industry, the HR function was primarily driven by the need to

bridge the vast demand-supply gap of skilled software resources. This was

accentuated by very high attrition rates, sometimes reaching as high as 40%

p.a.! In these circumstances, it was natural that the recruitment aspect of HR

was in the forefront. People-development and team-building initiatives were not

successful in this uncertain environment, where there was a constant churn out

of people. In retrospect, this phase neither helped the organization nor the

people, as it hampered the steady growth of knowledge and skills technical,

behavioral as well as managerial.

Today, high attrition rates have become history (hopefully forever)! This has

been driven by the significantly reduced demand-supply gap, as well as a

willingness of employees to build and invest in a relationship in their existing

organizations. Software professionals are reviewing their career growth within

their organizations and settling for stability instead of frequent job changes.

This has become possible with several software organizations in India offering

much more exciting opportunities coupled with increasing doubts about

insecurity of overseas jobs. Aided by this relatively stable people situation, HR

has entered a new phase in the Indian software industry. HR in the software

industry needs to embrace strategies to sustain stability, develop people and

improve productivity.

Strategies to enhance employee skills

To begin with let us look at the performance evaluation system. There is a great

need to ensure that it covers every aspect of people development with a strong

emphasis on behavioral traits such as:

Teamwork
Conflict resolution

Responsiveness

Sharing of knowledge and best practices.

It is worth noting that the behavior of individual employees and teams influence

the overall culture of the organization, and can strengthen or dilute its core

values.

The importance of assessing the behavioral patterns of individual employees

increases as the employee climbs the career ladder. Once a person attains a

people management level there is a need to critically evaluate the individual`s

behavioral traits.

Performance evaluation

While we always identify areas of growth and high performers in the

organization, one must be conscious of those people who need improvement.

Strategic plans must be in place to enhance the performance level of employees,

which are below par. This may not just be due to skills mismatch. Many a time,

the concerned person may not integrate well with the organization`s culture, or

simply not fit into the team; last but not the least, the employee could be a

perpetual poor performer. Even when performance evaluation systems

adequately cover the above aspects, the gaps need to be constantly identified

and bridged.

In addition, a successful performance evaluation system will need a well-

defined succession plan. This must be carefully prepared by evaluating the skill

set of the incumbent based on which, managers have to make an assessment of

the possible successor. Occasionally there will be gaps, which means that the

identification of the successor within the organization is ruled out. In such
cases, the management will have to evaluate the intensity of such gaps and take

a decision.

Rewards and Recognition

Let us move onto yet another critical HR tool -rewards and recognition. They

are an important method of keeping employees focused on their long-term

career goals. However, reward systems must undergo changes to be relevant

and keep pace with the dynamism of people. They need to be exciting for

people and have a substantial, positive impact on the organization`s culture.

Another important factor that will work to the advantage of the people and the

organization is the nurturing of a unique culture that can bond, attract and retain

talent. With people becoming more loyal to their organizations, there is a strong

need to build and sustain people bonding with them. Various social, emotional

and psychological factors that help in creating a community and a sense of

belonging need to be addressed.

Knowledge Management: KM can be a key tool to facilitate bonding. The

concept of sharing knowledge and providing learning windows apart from the

normal training and skill enhancement programmers will go a long way in

creating a unique culture in an organization developing people through

people.

Empowerment: Increasing empowerment and encouraging employees to think,

sharing ideas and providing freedom of enterprise can sustain retention of high

performers.

Best Practices: Nurturing and developing unique organizational standards like

Knowledge Development can contribute towards building its culture that will be

a clear competitive and strategic advantage. Today the software industry is in
a state of flux, where fast changing business dynamics have transcended cultural

and geographical boundaries. In this scenario, organizations must be alert and

be in a position to anticipate change and develop strategies to counter change.

Being pro-active and developing ownership at all organizational levels must be

the new buzzwords of HR. It needs to nurture people who can adapt to changes

in the organization structure, forms of work and the nature of work itself.

























INFORMATION PROCESSING FOR DECISION MAKING

As with any major change, Proper planning is an absolute necessity for

successful implementation of an HRIS. The steps outlined below describe the
specific procedure involved in successfully developing and implementing an

HRIS.

INCEPTION OF IDEA: The idea for having an HRIS must originate

somewhere. The originator of the idea should prepare a preliminary report

showing the need for and HRIA and what it can do for the organization. This

preliminary report should be designed to get management`s attention. The most

critical part of this step is to clearly illustrate how an HRIA can assist

management making certain decisions.

FEASIBILITY STUDY: The feasibility study evaluates the present system and

details the benefits of HRIS. It evaluates the costs and benefits of an HRIS by

showing the labor and material savings compared to the cost of the system. It

also evaluates the intangible savings, such as increased accuracy and fewer

errors. Of course, it is possible that the feasibility study would recommend

against an HRIS.

SELECTING A PROJECT TEAM: Once the feasibility study has been

accepted and the resources allocated, a project team should be selected. The

project team should consist of a human resource functions and activities and

about the organizations human resource functions and activities and about the

organization itself and representatives from both management information

systems and payrolls. As the project progresses, additional clerical people from

the human resource department will need to be added.



DEFINING THE REQUIREMENTS: A statement of requirements specifies

in detail exactly what the HRIS will do. A large part of the statement of

requirements normally deals with the details of the reports that will be
produced. Naturally, the statement also describes other specific requirements.

The typically includes written descriptions of how users collect and prepare

data, obtain approvals, complete forms, retrieve data, and perform other no

technical tasks associated with HRIS use. The key here is to make sure the

mission of the HRIS truly matches management`s needs for an HRIS.

VENDOR ANALYSIS: This step determines what hardware and software are

available that will best meet the organizations needs for the lowest price. This is

a difficult task. The best approach is usually not to ask vendors of a particular

package can meet the organizations requirements but how it will meet those

requirements. The results of this analysis will determine whether to purchase an

off-the-shelf package or develop the system internally.

PACKAGE CONTRACT NEGOTIATION: after a vendor has been selected,

the contract must be negotiated. The contract stipulates the vendors

responsibilities with regard to software, installation service, maintenance,

training, and documentation.

TRAINING training usually begins as soon as possible after the contract has

been signed. First, the members of the project team are trained to use the HRIS.

Toward the end of the implementation, the human resource representation will

train managers from other departments in how to submit information to the

HRIS and how to request information from it.

TAILORING THE SYSTEM this step involves making changes to the system

to best fit the needs of the organization. A general rule of thumb is not to

modify the vendor`s package, because modifications frequently cause problems.

An alternative approach is to develop programs that augment the vendors

programmed ration than altering it.
COLLECTING THE DATA Prior to start-up of the system, data must be

collected and entered into the system.

TESTING THE SYSTEM Once the system has been tailored to the

organization need and the data entered, a period of testing follows. The purpose

of the testing phase is to verify the output of the HRIS and to make sure it is

doing what it is supposed to do. All reports should be critically analyzed for

accuracy.

STARTING UP Start-up begins when all data an current actions are put into

the system and reports are produced. It is wise to attempt start-up during a lull

period so that as much time as possible can be devoted to the HRIS. Even

though the system has been tested, some additional errors often surface during

start-up.

RUNNING IN PARALLEL Even after the new HRIS has been tested; it is

desirable to run the new system in parallel with the old system for a period of

time. This allows for the outputs of both systems to be compared and examined

for any inaccuracies.

MAINTENANCE It normally takes several weeks or even months for the

human resource people to feel comfortable with the new system. During this

stabilization period, any remaining errors and adjustments should be handled.

EVALUATE After HRIS has been in place for a reasonable length of time, the

sysem should be evaluated. Is the HRIS right for the organization, and is it

being properly used?.



DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:


1Q. Explain the behavior pattern of HR and other manager in the organization?

2Q. explain the steps for information processing for decision making?











NOTES AND ADDITIONAL READINGS


1.Kirks J.Anderson,Putting an I in HRIS Personnel, September 1988pp.12-20

2.cyntis D.Diers,Personnel Computing: Make the HRIS More effective.

Personnel Journal, May 1990,pp.92-94.

3.Joe Pasqualetto Evaluating the Future of HRIS, Personnel journal,Aug-

1988,p.82.

4.HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, FIFTH EDITION BY-LLOYD

L.BYARS AND LESLIE W.RUE. TATA McGRAW HILL CO.1997.









UNIT -V



SECURITY, SIZE AND STYLES OF ORGANISATIONS & HRIS




INTRODUCTION

Peter Drucker remarks that the test of a healthy business is not the beauty,

clarity or perfection of its organizational structure ... It is the performance of

people`. Since people operate systems and effectively form part of them, good

systems performance requires good people performance. And if the individuals

operating a system do not perform well -- through ignorance) indolence,

negligence or ill- will -- that system will be defective or max` even fail

completely. The special needs and concerns of security systems make particular

demands in regard to staff loyalty, efficiency and cohesion, and impose quite

severe requirements for the planning, control and monitoring of the human

input. These priorities must be addressed In` an organization`s security

managers and the related issues of team commitment and ethical behaviour

must be seen to be important in its corporate culture.


THE PLANNING FRAMEWORK

Every person in a modern society has the right to protect his or her property,

income, safety and security. Sometimes duties of protection are given to

employers, but no matter what the law may require, all organizations have a

direct interest in promoting security-based duties to protect not only their own

capital and revenue, but also the safety and economic well-being of their

employees. This arises because security is inevitably allied to profitability in the

commercial sector, and to efficiency and cost accountability in the public sector.

As well as laying down a policy on practical matters, each organization should

also set the moral and ethical tone of the employment. This means that,

wherever

relevant, certain minimum standards should be established for behaviour in

situations where, for example, there may be:

? a conflict of interest

? an opportunity for insider dealing
? the abuse of confidential information, etc.



These standards should be effectively communicated to the employees, which

means that the employees must be encouraged to meet those standards. Simply

writing policies down cannot solve even the simplest security problems, but the

are important in setting the ground rules and expectations of those involved.

More detailed provisions allocating appropriate levels of professional and

personal responsibility should therefore be included in all employees` contract

of employment and/or job descriptions, and in any contracts with third parties

where there is an identifiable element of risk.



SECURITY MANAGEMENT

When planning the administration of security matters, the organization should

identify a specific individual who is to have the responsibility for advising on

and maintaining security. This should be a senior management post, visibly

supported by the most senior managers. The function should be to advise both

horizontally and vertically within the organization, and to assume overall

responsibility for the enforcement of obligations at all levels within the

organization and against third parties. The creation and support of such a post

will, in the event of subsequent legal action, show that the management was

acting prudently. But the appointment must not be in a vacuum. It should be

made with very sped5c responsibilities for the post holder in respect of the:



? organizational procedures for the screening and appointment of staff

? criteria of confidentiality for the classification and protection of information

? commercial and ethical screening of new investment opportunities both

internal and external to the organization

? prevailing statutory and professional data protection standards
? strategies for contingency planning

? practice of incident reporting within the organization.



The depth and detail of these responsibilities will, of course, vary with the size

and complexity of organization involved.



There also has to be significant commitment to education and training at every

level within the organization so that the process of change can be properly

managed. All those actually or likely to be affected by changes in working

practices must understand the new systems and the problems of using them

efficiently. Even after these changes have been introduced, employees who do

not begin using the systems immediately will need refresher courses, and those

who have regular practice should be shown how to consolidate and improve

upon their skills and be updated in any amendments to the systems. It is a good

policy to ensure that all relevant staff are well versed in the standard operating

procedures. This will allow for covering if colleagues are absent from work for

any reason, and for a good response in the event of an emergency when

flexibility of response from employees may be the key to a successful recovery.


THE IMPORTANCE OF UNDERSTANDING THE SYSTEM


When planning the training of staff, it is important to consider face-to-face

consultations, discussions and briefings between groups of employees and their

managers. Although meetings can disrupt normal working schedules, the benefit

lies in the opportunity for people to ask questions and to feel that they are, to

some extent, in control of the process of change. Once the staff feels that they

have some ownership of the concepts underlying the new systems, it is sensible

either to prepare accessible documentation which assumes nothing and is

regularly updated, or to provide computer-based training (CBT) systems
whether stand-alone, or embedded in the operating system or the resources

themselves. In theory, staff will then be able to rapidly familiarize themselves

with the relevant procedures. In practice, however, help-lines and readily

available people to advise are essential if difficulties and prejudices are to be

overcome.



This desire to train people and to produce flexible and effective employees must

be seen against the need, in some organizations, to control and restrict general

access to information about the operating procedures. If some procedures and

facilities are sensitive, the answer is that all these procedures should be

designed bearing in mind the level of security required in each aspect of the

office environment. But the levels of security specified for the design must be

realistic. Hence, levels of security appropriate to mainframe operations in a

sensitive government establishment will not be appreciated nor be appropriate

in a conventional commercial office. Moreover, whatever the overall system in

operation and the level of security considered appropriate, the staff should

understand why things are to be done, what policies underpin those procedures,

and what the likely effects of applying those procedures will be to them. People

are generally more supportive if they understand the reasons for the system.

Finally, the organization will consolidate the loyalty of its staff if it is seen to

meet the moral and statutory requirements of providing a working environment

which is both healthy and safe.



SECURITY PLANNING FOR PEOPLE



To commit a computer fraud, the criminal must have access to the computer so

both physical and logical access must be controlled, and planning must take
account of known vulnerabilities. Once access has been achieved, most frauds

depend on the falsification of input.



Most frauds have obvious symptoms, and the principal detection strategies rely

on noticing deviations from the norm. Once management suspicions have been

raised, a good rule is to follow the asset and to ignore the apparent records.



Similarly, if documents are missing, the auditor should suspect the person who

would have been suspected had incorrect documents been found. In the short

term, the bonus expected from the investigation is recovering part or all the

assets lost in the immediate fraud. But the main objective in prosecuting

detected fraud is long-term deterrence. To that extent, being seen to engage in

the investigative process is an aspect of the ongoing function of personnel

management and it is intended to affect staff attitudes. It should not be seen to a

mere by-product of standard auditing.



To give it the necessary independence and authority within the organization

auditing is a function that requires separate resourcing. Once established, the

auditor`s first task is to identify and watch all the vulnerable points. This can

usually be done discreetly, say by analysing historical trends or by testing

reasonableness in comparisons between branches or with other similar

companies. The aim should always be to avoid any prejudice to

employer/employee relations. But checks can never be restricted to statistical

methods. sampling checks should always be made on individual items,

regardless of the possible threat to labour relations. Hopefully, if the auditing

staff have properly trained, and the staff to be investigated have a constructive

view of the process, there should be minimum friction arising from the

disruption to the established routines.


THE CONDUCT OF THE AUDIT

Because all audits disrupt the normal working routines, they should be carefully

planned to maintain a good level of staff morale and to avoid appearing either

provocative or overly paranoid. In this, the manner and attitude of the auditing

staff is a critical factor. Those recruited for the task should not be the regular.

employees in the area(s) under review. The expectation is that outsiders are

more likely to be objective, to see through plausible excuses and to avoid

friendships which might colour judgements. Once the team has been recruited

and the audit planned, it is best to carry out checks by surprise even though this

may introduce a confrontational element between the audit team and the

affected employee Further, the team should not examine too large a part of the

organization over too long a period of time, because this may disrupt the

operation of that area too much. But if a close supervision can produce a fraud-

free period of operation, this will be a vital basis for later comparisons. Such

audits are expensive and depend on the effectiveness of the auditing staff. A

period of about 14 days is a useful target. There are a variety of reasons for this:



? thieves often live up to their incomes and may need to continue the fraud to

meet newly acquired commitments

? they may be arrogant enough to believe that the fraud is not detectable

? they may consider the investigation a challenge and enjoy the game of

continuing the fraud while under scrutiny

? they may recognize that if the fraud stops, the operational pattern will change,

thus revealing the existence and method of the fraud.

Such factors may lead to catching the person in the act.



FRAUD POTENTIAL

One way of focusing the investigation is to recognize that each job in every

organization has a different potential for fraud. The actual level will depend on

factors such as:



? the ability of each member of staff to gain access to critical resources

? the skills of those involved

? the amount of time available to plan and execute the fraud.



OBSERVATION OF EMPLOYEE BEHAVIOUR

Security staff should then look for danger signs from the employees such as:

? sudden wealth which might show itself through high cash spending, gambling,

drinking or drug abuse

? social connections with other organizations which might evidence possible

conflicts of loyalty (an inferential sign may be the sudden effectiveness of

competitors which might indicate one or more breaches of confidentiality or

that there is commercial espionage)

? a general lack of loyalty to the organization may be seen in poor time keeping,

disregard for instructions, dissatisfaction over lack of promotion or

unreasonable self-importance.

If staff showing these danger signs or who do not conform to other operational

norms are identified, the individuals should be observed and perhaps informally

interviewed.


PROFESSIONALISM

One element in this review of employee function will be that some staff with

access to high-risk procedures will be considered to have achieved a

professional status. As professionals, staff owe a series of interconnected duties:


? to their employers -- this will either be contractual or it will be governed by

the common law duty of loyalty

? to their clients -- staff may be employed to assist clients; again this

relationship will either be contractual or it will be regulated by the professional

standards in force at the time

? to fellow professionals in their capacity as professionals

? to society.

Whether or not staff have become professionals, the growth of all organizations

depends on mutual trust. Trust is required both between staff members

horizontally and vertically within the organization, and between the

organization and peer organizations, customers or service-receivers. If computer

professionals could not be trusted, the risks of system abuse would be so great

that computers could not be widely used. Although employers could try to

control matters through a contractual framework of disciplinary proceedings

unthinking and routine resort to the legal big stick is always likely to sacrifice

working relationships in the long run.



EXPECTATIONS OF CONDUCT

The burden is on the professional to establish and maintain quality in their

decision making and credibility in their decision support. This requires that the

professional remains faithful to the employer and does not breach

confidentiality maintaining proper standards of professional integrity. This is

particularly important during a computerization project. Most of those

responsible for taking the final decision of whether to buy and install particular

computer equipment will have little direct knowledge of what the operational

problems are likely to be, yet the purchase may have a profound effect on their

organization. Thus, if the organization buys a good management tool, it may
substantially improve profitability and/or efficiency. But if the organization

acquires a system which is defective, it may inflict real damage before the likely

effects of the faults are fully appreciated.



When it is obvious that the final decision-makers lack critical expertise, the

issue is what it is fair to expect the computer designers and manufacturers, the

marketing firms and the in-house computer managers to do. Between them, they

have the ability to cause the decision-makers to take either a good, a bad or an

indifferent decision. The senior managers will expect the in-house managers to

take responsibility for advising on and installing the information system.

Legally, these professionals may be responsible for any losses which are

sustained if they have not used the state-of-the-art standards for their profession.

This can be particularly important in deciding whether there should be litigation

and, if so, who should be involved as parties. The general sale/supply

relationship works well when the seller/supplier is honest with the customer

during the precontractual negotiations. Honesty for these purposes means that

reasonably accurate information is given which allows the buyer to take a

properly informed decision on whether to enter into the contract. If problems

arise in such a case, it will be because the in-house professional drew up the

wrong specification at the design stage or made errors in the installation. This

will usually justify dismissal but litigation is not generally appropriate because

employed professionals rarely carry their own insurance cover and cannot pay

any damages that might be awarded.



When selling, it is obvious that the seller/supplier should not attempt to deceive

the customer, but it is not necessarily so clear how much of the truth should be

told. Sales staff, particularly those paid on commission, can be economical with

the truth. The in-house professional should have the experience and the
expertise to ask the important questions to protect the buyer`s interests. If the

seller/supplier continues to mislead the buyer and this induces the contract, the

buyer will have a good case against the seller to recover damages (so long as the

seller was insured or has sufficient assets to make it worth suing). However, too

much information may be just as confusing to the inexperienced buyer, so the

real legal issue is the degree of relevance and salience in the information given.

If the professional cannot see the wood for the trees and so protect the decision-

makers, the professional will be at fault and is likely to become personally

involved in any case that follows.



SYSTEMS STAFF

Once the computer hardware is installed, the systems staff are in a particularly

privileged position because their work gives them a detailed knowledge of

many operational aspects critical to the organization. Moreover, they have

considerable freedom of access to both physical and system resources, and

become familiar with staff, data and procedures throughout the organization. All

this knowledge and these relationships are essential if the professional staff are

to work towards achieving full system synthesis. If the risk of threats from the

designers or the systems staff to the emerging system are to minimized, security

must start during the design phase. The most common motives for staff

disloyalty are greed, revenge and anger, but other factors like professional

arrogance or ignorance can contribute. The results can be positive errors or

omissions or general shortcomings in the design, poor documentation, etc. If

there is poor control over staff and they are encouraged to work on their own or

outside normal office hours, the dangers of both accidental or deliberate threats

become more real. To keep proper control, organizational procedures should

therefore separate systems staff from programming and operations staff in the
execution of their duties, so that each group will represent a check upon the

other, and an intelligently administered supervisory regime is maintained.



OTHER INTERNAL STAFF

In addition to the systems staff, threats from within the organization by

functions may

be as follows:

? Applications programmers. As in the case of systems analysts and designers,

there is a need to divide responsibilities, set standards and maintain effective

authorization system. The possibility of errors or omissions passing through the

development phase into the working programs must be reduced to acceptable

levels. In this sense, the programmer is more vital than analyst. Detailed testing

can help to reduce the risk but, following the detection of an error, any

amendments to software while it is a formative state may cause unforeseen

knock-on effects. Real supervision is therefore necessary to ensure that all the

relevant amendment procedures are observed, and that proper records are

maintained.



? Operating staff receive data for processing and are responsible for

disseminating the results to the appropriate users. Any breach in security

potentially prejudices data integrity and confidentiality and may result n the loss

of availability of both services and data. One operator working unsupervised

can accidentally or deliberately undermine the best security system. Further, the

use of powerful system commands can mask the opera- tor`s activities so

independent control must be exercised.


? Users will have a detailed knowledge of the business or operating procedures

which could be manipulated to make fraud work, so their activities must

carefully audited and controlled in the same way as operators.


EXTERNAL STAFF

Threats may also be posed by external staff:

? Independent contractors. Contract maintenance and cleaning staff can

prejudice confidentiality and the availability of services. All externally employ

ed staff should be supervised when they come on the premises as if they were

internal staff. Security can be breached by maintenance and other engineers by

substituting hardware components, by disabling control mechanisms or by using

the powerful software tools on their diagnostic disks to read protected files. All

their activities should be monitored by competent staff.

? Third-party action. There could be problems if, for example, the delivery of

stationery were to be stopped by suppliers, say, during a strike. 1 minimize the

risk of loss of system availability, the organization should maintain adequate

stock of critical documentation. Similarly if the electricity supply was disrupted,

the organization would discover whether it had invested in adequate generator

back-up facilities.


PERSONNEL ISSUES

People represent a threat even if only through their inexperience, incompetence,

negligence or curiosity. For these purposes, it is irrelevant that users and their

managers may have been made explicitly responsible for maintaining security.

If security systems are going to succeed, the active co-operation of all those

involved is required at all times during the routine of the work. But people are

always a weak link and even the most conscientious of employees may forget to
log-off or allow an unauthorized person through temporarily abandoning a

terminal.



THE DYNAMICS OF CHANGE

The installation of an information system can represent a significant act of

modernization for any organization. This can be good for morale if it is properly

managed. In the best cases, employees draw great confidence from the fact that

they are seen to be involved in a progressive organization, and this stimulates all

those affected to be creative and productive. However, the prospect of change

can also be demoralizing with staff afraid for their jobs. In the worst cases, this

results in a lack of co-operation or even outright opposition to the proposed

changes, so the first priority is to establish proper lines of communication with

all the staff likely to be affected. The aim should he to agree a set of

organizational goals, with plenty of opportunity built in for consultation and

feedback. If staff feel that they are able to influence the outcomes in a real way,

they are more likely to support the changes. From the goal-setting stage, the

management team then moves to the planning stage where more detailed

consultation with the prospective beneficiaries of change should lead to the

creation of properly defined, costed and scheduled arrangements.

Once decisions have been taken, people will accept change more readily if it is

implemented in a structured fashion, one step at a time, to allow each person to

become familiar with each new phase of the operation before the next step is

taken. Consequently, because change can affect many departments and third

parties with whom the organization interacts, it is better for all personnel

matters to be co-ordinated at a senior level. Adequate liaison with all interested

parties during the creation and implementation of plans for change is essential,

and because peer organizations may be affected, the active participation of

senior managers is vital throughout the exercise.


HELPING NEW USERS

Everyone involved in the process of change needs to know who to ask about the

risks involved. With a new system, there is a chance to get everything right

from the start, so it is important to have a good, security-conscious person in

charge during the development phase. To help users who may never have had to

deal with computers before, there should he a help-line. This should also

provide central record of the problems experienced and help to target training

time. this purpose, the computer services unit team should have a blend of comp

and of organization experience. If they have a reasonable level of experience,

they should be able to dispel the usual fears and misconceptions. They should

therefore be good communicators and be prepared to service the end users.



SECURITY ISSUES

No matter how good the training, the possibility of accidental error is a present,

and this may allow major systems failures to arise. As a result, reasonable steps

must be taken to protect the data. But it is uneconomic protect all the data all the

time except in the most sensitive application general, human error is more

common than dishonesty but, since error ma conceal dishonesty, the reduction

of error incidence is essential to maxim auditing effectiveness. It is a typical

wood for the trees` problem. Thus, once it acknowledged that all people-based

threats cannot be prevented, designers should build in detection systems to

allow rapid intervention to limit damage. All security design must be based on

good psychology and sociology. This is beta in the final analysis, security issues

are not simple technical problems. It inevitable that people will be vital

component parts of the system, but cannot be programmed as if they were

machines. In deciding what steps to planning teams must consider and reflect

upon the fact that people:


? may be the source of risk

? may be at risk from others

? may need protection.

Planning needs to take account of the full range of threats that may be present in

the working environment from full disasters to minor damage to integrity. The

concept of employee protection should be sufficiently flexible to include all

those factors which may affect the quality of work produce4by workforce. This

may include damage to health from causes as diverse as the air conditioning

(Legionnaire`s disease), and the ergonomics of the office layout. Staff are vital,

if not irreplaceable assets to the organization, so all should bee for. Good

working conditions, supplemented by the communication of a Or structured

plan for the protection of staff, help to reduce sickness, absenteeism. and staff

turnover, and may also reduce industrial relations problems. Staff morale can

also be affected by the intangible quality of the environment which includes the

level of sensitivity with which staff are counseled, which security vetted. It also

includes the way in which staff are treated if they make mistakes. The burden is

therefore on the personnel department to cooperate in the production of a safe

and paranoia-free workplace.



FUNCTIONAL SEPARATION AS A SECURITY CONTROL



Fortunately, most employees are honest, but a standard safeguard is that

employees should not be allowed to gain exclusive control over vulnerable

functions. The risks, as Baring`s Bank found out to their cost in Singapore, are

significant so, wherever possible, duties should be separated. This means that, at

a practical level, the care of assets and of the records which describe and list

those assets should be in different hands. Similarly, separation by function or by
transaction ensures that no one person has control over the whole of an

administrative system (see Chapter 18). Indeed, any fraud is more likely to be

discovered if jobs are performed jointly or there is some form of job covering or

rotation. There are three separate strands of argument:



1 The health of the employee is important and this may be enhanced through

rest or a change of activity.

2 Change in personnel helps to uncover frauds which may require continuity of

activity or presence to maintain secrecy.

3 However, job rotation will be impractical in many cases because retraining

may be uneconomic and inefficient.



Equally important is that staff should not be allowed to give up their holidays.

Organizations should not be hypnotized by the appearance of conscientiousness

and should not be tempted to let their star performer` work on. Toshihide

Iguchi, the trader who concealed losses of $1. I billion from the Japanese Bank

Daiwa, was famous for rushing back to work after only one or two days holiday.

The fraud was discovered when US regulators demanded that the bank impose a

mandatory two- week holiday on all staff. In the UK, the Midland Bank now

requires staff to take at least two consecutive weeks, Lloyds/TSB have a similar

system for all staff while UBS and BZW ask the same of staff who handle

money. There is no sign that British regulators will follow the US line and

require that holidays be taken but some insurers are now writing the

requirement into their policies.


A STEPPED APPROACH

The best security controls to protect administrative systems divide sensitive

tasks into a series of interdependent steps which must all be performed before
the task can be completed. If different people are responsible for each step, this

increases the chances of an honest employee noticing the error. Before deciding

how functions are to be separated, the security staff should first impose general

practical controls. For example, authority limits can be imposed on the amounts

which employees can manipulate. Then in sensitive environments, access to

information can be restricted on a need-to-know basis, regardless of the status

or rank of the staff members who ask for details. Further, it should be

considered normal for a person designated as superior in the management

hierarchy to supervise the work of subordinates so that each employee works

under the continuous observation of a supervisor who knows the employee and

who may be able to spot unusual behaviour.



Given a system incorporating these protections and good functional separation,

any employee who wants to break into the whole system should find it

impossible to do it alone and will be forced into collusion with other employees.

This increases the chances of detection. But in any organization, there are

always some people who must be trusted the security officer, say, or the senior

systems analyst -- and so there will always be people who can prejudice the

system if they want to. Designs should take account of this fact. Designers

should also recognize the difficulty of achieving satisfactory separations of

duties in the small organization where only a limited number of people are

employed. In such situations, urgent tasks are frequently undertaken by the ones

with the time rather than by fixed role. Within sensible limits, therefore, all

hands that may be called to the pumps must be trusted to do the jobs honestly.



USER DOCUMENTATION AND TRAINING

System manuals and both user and programming specifications can also be a

weak link because a potential criminal can quickly discover how the
documented system is supposed to work. But without good documentation,

serious difficulties can arise. Good and clear documentation and the use of

checklists can:



? significantly reduce the number of errors and omissions which people make.1

? ease communications between departments

? help to ensure operational continuity -- a prime objective of security safe

guards to deal with problems of equipment failure and personnel turnover.



If any documentation is considered sensitive, it should therefore be kept ma

secure place and only made available to identified individuals on a need-to- and

time-constrained basis. This requires the documentation to be written discrete

elements which match system functions and processes. In this way, organization

can prevent its employees from gaining an overview of the system and, in

parallel with the logical access system, each employee`s security profile will

dictate whether access may be made to any given documentation element. One

problem which regularly faces the users of stand-alone micros is illness. If there

are only a limited number of people trained to use the machines for each

function, an prolonged period of absence may cause a serious disruption to that

function. Training should therefore always include all those who might be

called on to cover for absent colleagues. If only one or two staff have the

expertise, should be taken to prevent them from either personalizing the system,

choosing idiosyncratic places in which to store the back-up copies, unless is

very good documentation of what they have done. Any failure to I accessible

information of practice can cause chaos if those stall suddenly leave are ill,

because those who are to replace them will have no idea how to make system

work. Indeed, the irony is that without adequate documentation, really are

irreplaceable.


Finally, training should persuade or condition everyone to respond to anything

which is unusual as a security variance. But, if such events are not to be

ignored, there must be a procedure for reporting suspicious incidents. It must

recognized that staff will not report things when their friends are involved

encourage the proper response, it may therefore be advisable to permit re be

made in confidence and with no stigma attached to the reporter, regardless the

outcome. All levels of employee must be encouraged to see themselves security

safeguards, the overall aim being to create a secure environment in which

employees are aware of their responsibilities and are not tern misbehave.





DIRECT EMPLOYMENT POLICIES

As a priority, every organization should formulate a detailed policy for:

? recruitment and selection

? staff assessment and appraisal

? termination of employment.

It is well known that disgruntled and under-used employees are the most likely

to breach security. Good personnel management is therefore essential to

maintain morale and to produce effective training. This should include proper

career progression so that people can achieve their legitimate aspirations within

the organization. If staff are happy, with plenty of task variety and stimulation,

they are likely to stay. But whatever the conditions under which people work,

no employing organization can assume that its staff will remain loyal. People`s

attitudes change and, depending on the circumstances, they may leave, they may

become susceptible to bribery or they may take information with a view to

selling it to a competition Each organization should therefore consider a key

person policy which decides how expertise is to be replaced, or how the
organization is to be restructured to compensate for its loss. Should it become

necessary to terminate employment, adequate security procedures should be

devised. The employees who are to be removed should be excluded from

sensitive areas immediately. Arrangements should be made for the immediate

return of security sensitive items such as manuals, keys, ID badges, and all

passwords and logical access authorizations should be cancelled.



The key personnel issues may therefore be summarized as follows:

? tempered by job sensitivity analysis, the organization should have effective

pre-employment screening and background checking to reduce the possibility of

appointing an untrustworthy person into a post of responsibility

? all staff should be trained to recognize and act on deviations in behaviour seen

in their colleagues which could be warning signs of likely fraudulent behaviour

? there should be strict guidelines following a dismissal or other termination to

reduce the opportunity for vengeful behaviour by a disgruntled individual

? there should be a well-defined policy on non-disclosure of confidential

information

? staff should be given well-defined channels to air their grievances, and there

should be regular personnel reviews

? morale is maintained by having a safe and well-appointed environment in

which to work.



AUDITING SYSTEM CONTROLS

Internal auditors should not be content with a yearly assessment of risk, but

should review all record-keeping systems, including the computerized data

store, on a regular basis to ensure the adequacy of the controls. In this, approved

members of the audit management team can use the established management

information system and decision support systems (DSSs) to manipulate the
sometimes large quantities of data through the technique of modelling to detect

changes or suspicious trends in the whole. DSSs usually have good software

tools with which to interact with the data and to prepare reports on the data

environment. Such systems can easily be modified to support the auditing

function. The resulting tests could be scheduled on a regular or routine basis,

but there are dangers in being too predictable because this allows the criminals

the chance to have the data in a good state by the time the known inspection is

to be made. Equally, if the tests are too infrequent, they may fail to detect

control degradation or the system violations which take place between tests.

Alternatively, audit testing could be used to follow up an apparent failure in the

controls by attempting to detect the cause or to ensure that previously detected

deficiencies have been corrected.



ENSURING DATA SECURITY



Generally, auditors seek to ensure data security by:

? monitoring computer activity including the exception reports (unauthorized

attempts to access files or procedures), console logs (to look for unusual

activities), the system management facility which records which operations

have been performed, and so on

? checking all changes to the system including additions to the system library as

well as changes to source codes.



Application software is at the heart of the Information system. For this software

to operate effectively, security controls are necessary within the software and at

the interface between the software and other components of the information

system. The security measures implemented must reflect the needs of that
system and be consistent with the sensitivity of the data processed by the

system. The software most likely to be involved includes:



? the financial and asset management systems such as payroll and stock

management

? those systems which provide process support for the organization`s operations,

such as CAD/CAM, CIM

? the automated decision-making systems, such as stock re-ordering

maintenance scheduling, and so on.



In good design, security is built in from the outset. For this to be achiev4a I

systematic approach to design is required (see Chapter 9). However, no n how

good the design may be on paper, an information system can only be secure if it

is a part of an organization with a positive attitude towards security. therefore

vital that those in a position of authority ensure that the standardsc1 best

practice are incorporated into the management of the organizational

environment. The aim must be to make the optimum selections of security goals

and strategies, and to design effective security safeguards. This requires a blend

of foresight and experience, but the best results can only be achieved when

decision making is based on a holistic view of the organization and its systems.

Only an all-embracing overview allows the construction of appropriate security

measures to meet the known vulnerabilities.



Finally, when taking design decisions, managers should recognize that there a

difficult balancing of factors to achieve, namely that although automated

controls are less costly to operate and more consistently applied than their

manual equivalents, the automated systems that fail to take account of the

people who are to operate them are likely to be ignored or by-passed. More
often than not, a compromise will be required to accept slightly less than opt

security in return for a more friendly interface which the employees are like

accept and operate.



AUDITORS AND THE ORGANIZATION

In organizational terms, the role of the auditor has become increasing

fundamental. Even applying ordinary common sense, the organization will able

to identify the most probable threats and vulnerabilities. Managers will be able

to see that, if threatened by determined criminals, an automated system will be

more vulnerable if it has been inadequately developed and incorporates a poor

defensive design. The problems will grow in scale if access is to be made by

many users, making the application of input controls difficult. So most

organizations accept that there is a positive need for good auditing advice and

facilities during the design and implementation phases. At its best, this will be

based on a details : mapping of the information system and of the human

interfaces with it. At each human interface, the auditors should consider the

likelihood and consequences of error. Not only can automated countermeasures

be put In place, but the human resource development team can also be advised

to devise training schedules that will improve the preparation of source data and

promote individual accountability at each data flow interface.



Once the system has been installed, there will be dangers in all program

modifications and file changes if poorly trained staff is allowed to make them,

so it is up to the auditors to liaise with the systems analysts to ensure rigorous

testing before any amended software is allowed into the working environment.

Both static and dynamic testing should be encouraged. During the tests, the

analysts should judge the extent of the program which has been exercised and

attempt to judge whether the unexercised code is an unauthorized insertion such
as a program patch. In this way, the auditors give themselves the best chance of

maintaining system integrity as the system develops.



RECIPROCAL AGREEMENTS AND CONTINGENCY CENTRES

A number of organizations near the larger towns may decide to pool their

resources to save money. These reciprocal or mutual aid agreements work by

allowing one member access to the hardware of another during an emergency,

and they are likely to be particularly attractive in those industries which have



accepted common hardware standards. Both software and data must be portable

between the different member`s facilities, and in evaluating the practicality of

the scheme, rehearsals can be helpful even though they can be expensive, and

generate unwelcome disruptions to the back-up organization. But if tests are to

be effective, the full critical applications must be put up and made to run

realistically. It is difficult to make mutual aid agreements totally reliable. Few

organizations have a guaranteed level of free machine capacity so the

arrangement is usually only for short-term relief and often covers only a limited

amount of processing. Changes in either system will jeopardize the practicality

of the agreement, and changes in management policy may cause the withdrawal

of one member without notice so it can be a high-risk strategy because

participants may only discover that promised aid is not available when an

emergency arises. For these reasons, mutual aid agreements have high risks

attached to them and may not be practical in the real world.



Equipped contingency centres are relatively rare because they are capital-

expensive to create and demand for the service is relatively low. If an

organization proposes to use this strategy, it should first ensure hardware

compatibility and check all the communications linkages. If the technical
problems are overcome, the organization pays a subscriber fee for the right to

use the facility in an emergency. The cost of declaring an emergency may be

great because, once the decision is taken to move to the back-up site, the

hardware rental fees are payable. The organization should also carefully

consider whether there are any security problems if other organizations are

using the facility. The question of storing sensitive materials (whether on

system or not) at the contingency centre should be discussed ii, say, trade

competitors are likely to be using the same resources.



The organization should also consider the level of availability of the facilities at

the centre for rehearsal. It is fundamentally important that the staff at both ends

of the transfer are fully familiar with all the problems which are likely to occur,

and detailed training schedules should be drawn up and executed to raise staff

awareness to a proper level. Further, the centre itself should disclose the number

of subscribers so that there can be an intelligent guess made as to the likely odds

of another subscriber needing the facility at the same time. The logistics of

transfer should then be calculated starting with simple factual matters such as

the distance from the organization to the centre -- recovery at the original site

may be slowed if key personnel are too far removed in the back-up centre.

Finally, as with the bureau system, the planners must recognize that

membership of these schemes limits the development of home sites to those

changes which are compatible with the back-up site.



OTHER EMERGENCY FACILITIES



Some organizations have constructed empty rooms or shells. This is called a

cold stand-by scheme. In the event of a disaster, the client organization is

allowed access to assemble a back-up system. The scheme is significantly less
expensive than the equipped room system, but suffers from the disadvantage

that it is slower to start up. Co-operative interfirm provision of empty rooms,

spreads the costs. As with the hot stand-by systems, there must be careful

consideration of the number of clients likely to want access at any given time,

but overall, such schemes represent a good system for less critical back-up

because it is not essential to maintain full system compatibility. There are also

firms which provide relocatable computer centres -- these are prefabricated

rooms with built. in facilities but they can take time to erect. Planning is

therefore essential to bridge the gap while the new working environment is

created, so the hot stand by schemes are more effective in this respect.

Obviously, for any of these schemes to work, copies of essential files and

software must survive the disaster. Adequate back-up power systems should

therefore be installed so that the in-house system can be archived and brought

down gracefully in the event of a major loss of power during the disaster.



THE IN HARDWARE CONSIDERATIONS

The first question is whether there are manual fall-back systems which will

allow the organization to operate during short disruptions and during the initial

stages of a major disruption. For example, the organization should check to see

whether there are any manual typewriters and a suitable stock of documentation

for recording sales and accounting transactions. Hardware can be easily

replaced if it is of recent manufacture or still in stock. Some manufacturers will

give priority of supply to those affected by a disaster. However, different

suppliers have different policies and it essential to discuss disaster recovery

with the suppliers at an early stage. Some hardware suppliers will, for example,

make demonstration computers available to bridge in the event of disaster.

These are usually showcase computers, but they are likely to have poor security

and it is possible that they have been constantly updated with the most recent
software releases, so system compatibility may be a problem. It vi1l also be

hard to replace customized hardware or hardware produced in small quantities

or on demand. This will inevitably be the case if the manufacturer has

discontinued the line or has ceased trading. If this fact is recognized during the

lifetime of a contingency plan, it should be modified to allow time to find a

second-hand system, or to recreate the system using new hardware. When

drawing up and maintaining the contingency plan, adequate time should be

allowed for the delivery, installation, testing and commissioning of the

replacement processors. In this, the size and complexity of the communications

network can be a major factor. Although the telephone system may be swiftly

reconnected, the supply and fitting of modems and multiplexers may be time-

consuming and there may be substantial systems work required to allow for the

new configuration -- for example, for access to become remote during repairs.



DATA AND DOCUMENTATION CONSIDERATIONS



With considering the data themselves, a whole series of decisions must be

taken. The first and most serious possibility is that some or all of the source data

have been destroyed. This may happen if there is disruption during processing.

The organization should therefore decide:



? What kind of back-up files should be routinely created.

? How many generations of back-up are needed to ensure rapid recovery.

? How much data must be stored in geographically remote sites.



The organization must aim to produce data which are accurate, complete, timely

and authorized; and to create a system whereby, with minimum effort, it is

possible to reconstruct transactions from the relevant source documents. With
both these facilities, organizations should be able to make decisions based on

the best information, to create a good audit trail and to recover quickly from

disasters. The DP and user departments have joint responsibility in this respect.

It is also vital to consider which functions are most important to the continuing

operation of the business, and priority should be given to the restoration of those

functions.



PLANNING DOCUMENT STORAGE



Ibis should be undertaken alongside records retention analysis. In some cases,

there will be legal requirements to retain documentary evidence of transactions,

say, for the Inland Revenue and Customs & Excise. Similarly, there will be

processing requirements, (e.g. to restart processing from source data if the

computer malfunctions during processing), which require documents to be

preserved. Each organization should analyse its documentation to identify

which documents are critical. It is then advisable to microfilm, fiche or put on

CD the most important and to store them on a remote site. Documents may be

stored on different sites on a cyclical basis depending on their age so long as

recovery can be made quickly to permit the recreation of the electronic data.

Finally, user manuals tend to be kept in offices where fire damage may easily

occur. Back-up copies should be stored at remote sites. Copies of the disaster

plan itself should be distributed throughout the organization and should be

easily available at protected locations. Some copies should be kept a the homes

of the key personnel who will be contacted if the disaster occurs.




ORGANISATION STRUCTURE & HRIS

The activities of decision making, planning, communicating, performance

monitoring and control occur extensively and continuously in almost every

organization. We can differentiate these activities in a number of ways,

commonly by reference to:



? the functions involved) for example marketing or financing

? the aspects of the operations to which the decisions relate, such as pricing or

employee remuneration

? the time period concerned: short, medium or long term.



A further generally accepted division of the range of decision-making activities

in an organization is illustrated in Figure 3.1.



DECISION-MAKING LEVELS

The three levels of decision making illustrated here reflect essential differences

in the nature of the decisions being taken. Consequently the position of the

potential decision-maker in the hierarchy gives rise to different information

requirements to support the decisions. The differences in the type and quality of

the information required for each of these levels are explained in more detail

later in this chapter.



We can consider these decisions quantitatively -- in terms or their volume or

frequency or qualitatively in terms of their significance or consequences for the

organization. The operational decisions are the most prevalent in an

organization and the strategic decisions the least prevalent. Conversely,

strategic decisions are potentially the most significant, while operational

decisions have little potential impact on the organization as a whole.


The distinction between decisions at the operational and tactical levels on the

one hand, and those at the tactical and strategic levels on the other, is often a

matter of interpretation within a specific situation: it usually reflects the nature

of the particular processes employed in managing the organization. The

distinction between operational-level and strategic-level decisions is usually

more clearly observable in practice. Let us now look at the nature of these three

levels of decision making and provide some examples of the types of decisions

involved in each of the groups. We shall keep discussion of the tactical level to

the end, because it interacts significantly with the other two levels.





































OPERATIONAL DECISIONS

Operational decisions are concerned with the ongoing daily or routine

operations of the organization, relating mainly to its primary activities. Figure

3.2 illustrates the main groups of primary activities and shows a few examples

of the decisions associated with each of them. Our list of examples is not

exhaustive and relates to a manufacturing organization, although some features

would also be found in the operations of a service-sector organization, such as

the sales ledger system.



Each of these groups represents a major sub-system in the organization`s overall

information system. The sequence of activities and decisions indicated in Figure

3.2 is not necessarily the order in which they would occur in practice. Indeed,

many of the activities shown will take place simultaneously. Another important

feature highlighted in the figure is the linkages between each of these primary

sub-systems. They usually reflect some flow of data between them. The figure

also indicates the two-way flow of data between the operational sub-systems an

corresponding elements at the management level.

Operational decisions are concerned primarily with:



1. Short timescale and routine programmes to promote the effectiveness an

efficiency of daily operations: sales and customer order taking, the acquisition

and stocking of raw materials, production operations, delivery an installation of

goods and services, and the subsequent invoicing and collection of payment for

the goods and services.























































2. They tend to be highly unstructured or non-programmable, and are often

novel to the organization and its decision-makers, with no guarantee that they

will recur in a similar context.


3. They involve high levels of uncertainty and risk, requiring significant levels

of personal and subjective analysis, appraisal and choice within the decisions.

4. The kinds of information needed to support them are not generally

predictable, although certain types of external and internal information will be

regularly processed for the decision-making group as a general part of the

organization`s need to develop good sources of intelligence and broad

performance indicators.


TACTICAL DECISIONS

Tactical decision making may be considered as filling the centre spread in the

spectrum of decision types between operational` at one extreme and strategic`

at the other. Ibis level shares a number of features with both the operational an

strategic levels, and is considered last for this reason. Figure 3.4 indicates the

broad areas of decision handled at this level.



The role of individual managers in this section of the decision hierarchy also

needs to be recognized: in addition to decision making, this level of

management also has the task of integrating and co-ordinating activity and

communication between the strategic and operational levels. The function of

these managers is to interpret, implement, monitor and control the strategic

objectives, plans and policies established by the organization, This may involve

developing plans, performance levels, guidelines, procedures and operating

instructions for the operational levels in the organization.




















TACTICAL DECISIONS IN AN ORGANIZATION









In addition to this enabling link from the strategic to the operational levels for

implementation purposes, the tactical level also has a responsibility to monitor

the operations of the organization and to feed back summarized performance

data to the strategic level. This management role is arguably the most crucial

element in the organization`s operation, as it provides a vital interface between

the long-term plans of the organization and their more immediate

implementation and control.



Tactical level decisions may be characterized in terms of:



1. A practical concern with the short-, medium- and long-term perspectives of

organizational performance, although the main emphasis will tend to be

medium term.

2. The need to relate primarily to the functional elements in the organization

while recognizing the overall strategic objectives, strategies and development

proposals.

3. The involvement of moderate degrees of uncertainty and risk in appraising

the decision options and the alternative solutions available.
4. The semi-structured nature of the problems encountered, since there will be

some elements in each problem which may be relatively common, while

other elements are novel both to the decision-maker and to the organization. A

core of standard analytical techniques has been developed to provide some basic

tools to tackle different problem situations. Examples include operational

research methods such as linear programming or queuing algorithms, statistical

methods, variance analysis methods in budgetary control, and spreadsheet

software packages. The real skill at this level of decision making is the ability to

structure the problem encountered into an appropriate form and to select the

correct decision tools to assist in the analysis

and selection of the best solution strategy).

5. Information requirements which are only partially predictable, such as the

regular performance monitoring requirements and reports. (The unpredictable

elements reflect the need for management to focus on particular novel issues

and problems as they arise, and to use standard-purpose analytical tools to

evaluate the alternatives and to take decisions.)







TYPES AND QUALITY OF INFORMATION



Our discussion of the levels of decision making in the organization indicated

that the nature of the decisions taken at each level varies significantly. We

suggested that the type and quality of the information required to support the

three levels of decision making would also vary. The effective specification,

design and operation of an organization`s information system require a clear

recognition and understanding of these differences, both in terms of the types

and the qualitative dimensions of the information that will be required.


INFORMATION CLASSIFICATION BY TYPE



Several dimensions may be used as the basis on which to classify information.

These include:



? source -- internally- or externally-generated information

? time frame -- information relating to the historical, current or future situation

? communication media -- presentation of information in either written or oral

form

? functional orientation -- relating the information to the primary functional

area or activity affected -- for example raw material costs and the purchasing

function, or statistics on employee absenteeism and the personnel function

? decision level -- relating information to its primary use at one or more of the

operational, management or strategic levels.



These classifications are not mutually exclusive; a particular item of

information may be classified using each of these dimensions. For example,

information on the sales achieved by a particular product in a given month may

be classified as internally generated, historical, written and appropriate to

management level decisions in the sales function -- whereas forecasts of

market demand for the product may be externally generated, futuristic, written

and primarily for use in strategic-level decisions in the marketing function.



QUALITATIVE DIMENSIONS OF INFORMATION



In addition to classifying by type, we can also differentiate categories
information on the basis of quality. Four key points need to be stressed in

relation to these quality dimensions:

? not all the dimensions will be relevant in any given decision situation

? each dimension may be represented by a range of potential levels of quality

? even where there are several relevant dimensions, certain dimensions maybe

more important than others. In the case of financial accounting information, for

example, a high degree of accuracy may be more important than the` timeliness

or currency of the information received

? the importance of a particular dimension in a given decision situation is a

reflection of the decision situation, the nature of the problem faced, and the

skills of individual decision-makers. In the case of a decision-maker with strong

analytical abilities, the provision of detailed and comprehensive! information as

opposed to summarized and partial information may enhance the decision taken.

However, if the decision-maker`s analytical abilities are less well developed, a

more summarized version of the information may yield higher value.







Attribute

Range of attributes

Level of detail

Detailed Summarized





Accuracy

Highly accurate Inaccurate





Accessability

Readily available Delayed availability





Time perspective

Current Historic





Completeness

Fully comprehensive Partial outline




Relevance

Appropriate to Inappropriate to



Current needs current needs

Bias

Objective Subjective





Verifiable

Self- verifiable No means of checking





Quantifiable

Quantified Not ammeniable to



Numeric expression

Degree

of Certain Highly uncertain

uncertainity







Clarity

Clearly expressed Ambiguous




COSTS

The improvement of quality or the enhancement of the value received by the

user from the information will normally necessitate additional information

processing costs. Each of the qualitative dimensions listed has a cost associated

with the improvement of the quality of the information in that particular

dimension. Thus, if a production planning and control department operates on

the basis of reports received at the end of each day, the proposal might be made

to improve the timeliness of the information received by providing information

on a real-time or immediate response` basis throughout the day. This will

involve considerable investment in:

? the computer hardware and communications equipment needed to capture and

transmit the data from the shopfloor

? the development or acquisition of appropriate software to process the

information
? increased staff time, both in capturing the primary data and in accessing the

resulting information

Systems designers therefore need to understand the needs of the user and

translate these into the appropriate levels of information quality provision.



LIMITATIONS



While we can accept that additional expenditure on information processing may

improve the quality of the information provided, we should recognize that there

are limitations on the degree to which quality may be improved, apart from the

cost limitations. The quality of the source data used will dictate the potential to

improve the qualitative dimensions. For example, market survey data which

failed to record the ages of respondents could not have this detail added later.

Similarly, costing information recorded in units of hundreds pounds could not

be provided in greater accuracy -- say, in terms of pounds an pence.



Technical limitations may also restrict the potential improvements in quality as

the ability to capture, store and process the volume of data necessary provide a

comprehensive statement of the organization`s markets may be limited.



Another important restricting factor is the cognitive capacity of the user. While

it may be possible to improve the detail and comprehensiveness of the data

provided, the capacity of the overworked user to use it effectively maybe

constrained by the sheer volume of information provided. So, enhancing

inherent quality of the information does not necessarily add value to the user in

the decision-making or control activities. Alternatively, no matter how m time is

available, good-quality information on its own does not convert a decision-

maker into a good decision-maker.


DECISION LEVELS AND INFORMATION NEEDS



Differences in the nature of the decisions at various levels in the organization be

an important determinant of both the type of information required and i quality.

Figure 3.6 illustrates the differential nature of type and quality for the three

broad levels of decision making outlined earlier.



Strategic decisions are concerned primarily with positioning the organization in

the environment to meet its targets and objectives most effectively, while

planning to allow the organization to develop dynamically in response to

changes in environment. Such decisions typically involve a higher proportion of

externally generated data, often presented in a summarized form and relating

more to fu potential than to historical or current developments. The information

required also generally be less accurate, in the pedantic sense, and incorporate

more subjective valuations of future trends and developments. This will tend to

make the contents less predictable, as the information needs will be largely

dictated by developments in the external environment which, by definition, are

largely out side the organization`s control.



Operational decisions tend to be based on information originating primarily

within the organization and relating to either historical or current activities. The

conduct of the decision making at this level will also require detailed an

accurate information, which is often predetermined by both the content an

quality necessary to be incorporated into highly structured decisions.






Information

Operational

Tactical

Strategic

Attributes

Orientation

Primarily internal Internal

and Greater





external

orientation

Planning horizon Immediate

to Data utilized

To external data



next

Short to medium

Medium to long



Few days

Term (week and term

(months

Performance



months)

and years)

focus

Focus on current Historic and current Focus

on



activities

activities

predictive rather







than historic

Coverage

Relates

to Relates to group of



specific activities activities

within Coverage of total





department/function organization

Level of detail Highly detailed

Mixture of detailed

presented



and

summarized Data typically in





reports

highly







summarized

Uncertainty

Low uncertainty Moderate levels of form

levels

levels

uncertainity









High levels of







uncertainity

as



Objectively

Combination

of focusing

on

Degree

of measured

data objective

and longer term

objectivity

normally

subjective data

Data incorporate







higher



High levels of Moderate accuracy proposition

of

Level

of accuracy usually levels

subjective
accuracy

required

valuations



Accuracy

less

critical

of

decisions at this

level


Tactical decisions are concerned with the tactical planning and control of the

organization. A significant proportion of the information inputs to this level will

comprise summaries of the operational performance of the organization`s

primary activities, usually on a periodic basis. In such cases, the information

inputs will be highly structured and predictable in terms of the required content,

detail and accuracy.



ORGANIZATION

STRUCTURE

AND

INFORMATION

REQUIREMENTS



All organizations are built up from standard resource-based components, but the

individual motives, pressures and constraints which operate at the time of

construction tend to produce strongly differentiated organizational structures

even where the organizations to be compared seek to serve the same market

However, there are a number of common denominator` themes which emerge

in the structuring period, regardless of whether the organization is taking

decisions explicitly or implicitly. At a macro` level, the organization will seek

to structure its human resources and operations in the most effective and

efficient manner to achieve its objectives. To make these objectives operational,

the organization must:

? formally identify and structure the available resources

? establish efficient information and communication systems

? create processes for effective decision making, planning and control.






PRIMARY ISSUES



The strength of any organization ultimately lies in its human resources. But if

the best possible use of these resources is to be achieved, the organization must

take key decisions to allocate authority and responsibility. Without properly

defined roles and a career structure which is likely to develop and maintain staff

morale, it will be difficult to make effective use of the other resources -- no

matter ho easy it may actually be to exploit them -- and management skills will

fade. depends, in turn, on the development and communication of a personnel

policy which can be perceived as co-ordinated with the more general policies of

the organization. So training must be planned to introduce new skills and

enhance the old, and a pathway of promotion must be set in place to allow each

manager to gain experience and insight into the aims and methods of the

organization.



MOTIVATION AND RESPONSIBILITY



The ways in which an organization may be controlled vary from the autocratic

excesses of an aggressive entrepreneur to an open and democratic system

decision making. The power structures which will develop will come to

represent the culture of the organization and will be a vital factor in setting the

tone and feel of employment. Key factors in maintaining motivation are the

extent to which each manager is allowed to participate in significant decision

making a the degree of authority delegation. If a manager is trusted with

specific responsibility and found to be competent, this reinforces the mutual
confider between manager and organization and should lead to better

performance.



POWER AND POLITICAL STRUCTURE



But no organization can afford to accept success uncritically. The predicted

outcomes may have arisen through circumstances entirely outside the control

the organization -- such as blind luck -- and survival depends on recognizing

that the current organizational structure is not necessarily the most effective

efficient. Thus, structural appraisal and evaluation may lead the organization to

propose changes to allow greater control or better decision making. But all

change is a threat to established power structures, and where individuals have

had responsibility and authority it can be difficult to make the change effective

To that extent, all managements need to be aware of the political structure

within the organization, so that the process of change can be steered through the

matrix of entrenched self-interest. The political structure may map directly on to

the formal decision-making structure, with power and influence controlled by

the largest, the most productive or the most profitable departments. Sometimes

the survival of power is an anachronism: the original managers of the first form

of the organization retain influence, even though new parts of the business have

long since outstripped them in performance terms. This inevitably means

addressing the issues of the size of organization and its component elements.

Empire building by one or two ambitious individuals can be a way of promoting

rapid growth, but it does not necessarily lead to better management or to the

right balance of activities.



FACTORS INFLUENCING ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE


Reflecting on the primary issues discussed in the previous paragraphs, we can

identity a range of factors that will influence the structure of any organization.

These include:



? the size of the organization: smaller organizations tend to have a less rigidly

defined structure and fewer specialist functional units, and work on the basis

that individuals or units may undertake a number of different functions or

operations

? the nature of the product or service package provided, the methods used in its

manufacture or provision and the means used to deliver, support and service the

final consumers` needs

? the type of market in which the organization operates, the nature of consumer

needs, and the types of competitive pressures encountered

? the strategy pursued, which will often determine the most appropriate structure

for the organization. Growth through product or geographic diversification will

usually require a structure based on common products and/or geographic areas,

for example a European sales division or a special products division

? the nature of the environment and the rate at which key elements change,

which may have to be reflected in the corporate structure: an organization faced

with rapid change in its markets will need to develop systems which are equally

responsive to changes in consumer preferences or in competitor strategies

? technological change will also influence the form of structure as the

organization seeks to adapt to new products and/or manufacturing technologies

and processes

? the history, background and previous developments in the organization, which

will all influence the management`s preference for a particular structure

? the style of management preferred, reflecting (for example) the degree of

decentralization of authority and responsibility for decision making
? the power structure within the senior management, which will often provide an

important barrier or stimulus to organizational change

? the culture of the organization: the organization`s culture and structure are

essentially interrelated, though the processes through which one influence the

other are outside the scope of this present discussion.



It should be fairly evident from the nature of these factors that the range relative

importance of each will vary from organization to organization. Indeed, each

organization has a unique structure which ma be said to reflect the un set of

influencing factors facing it. The management literature broadly accepts that

there is no best structure` for all organizations and argues that a contingency

approach is more appropriate for organizational design. At its simplest level, the

contingency approach suggests that the appropriate design or structure fort

particular organization should emerge as a response to the particular factors

issues facing the organization among those outlined in the previous paragraphs.



FORMAL AND IN FORMAL ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE



Understanding the distinction between the formal and the informal

organzational structure is essential, because it may have significant implications

for the organization`s information and communications systems.



The formal structure represents the agreed grouping and allocation of resources

activities, responsibilities and authority. In many respects, this structure will

accommodate all the normal routine activities, linkages and processes in the

organization outlined in Chapter


The informal structure represents a series of linkages or relationships between

individuals or groups in the organization. The informal structure is unlikely to

mirror the formal structure and evolves through workplace or social

relationships and friendships, or through political associations within the

organization.



A debate on the reasons for the development of informal structures and their

implication for the organization is outside the scope of our present objectives

However, the informal organizational structure may represent an important

element of the organization`s total information and communications systems

One frequently hears reference to the speed or efficiency of the grapevine` in

communicating information within an organization. Difficulties arise

incorporating this element of the information system into any planned systems

development, because the informal system is:



1. difficult to identify, as few members would admit to being part of an informal

structure

2. transient and likely to change as members of the organization and their

personal relationships change

3 only a partial system, catering primarily for the more sensational items of

information as opposed to processing the more routine data

4 often inefficient in terms of the quality of the information communicated, as

members in the communication channel may modify the basic data to suit their

particular purposes

5 unpredictable in terms of when and how effectively it will operate in ea

situation -- the absence of a particular member for a brief period may result in

the total collapse of the system.




There are several reasons for not incorporating the Informal organization

structure and its associated information system within the formal processes of

information systems development. However, the fact that such systems exist in

all organizations must be recognized and any implications should be reflected in

the formal systems development process. Indeed, knowledge of the informal

information system may aid the process by identifying possible problems or

inefficiencies in the formal organization structure or information systems. Once

the problems are identified, countermeasures may be devised which will lead to

successful outcomes following implementation of the system.



ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND IN FORMATION SYSTEMS



Earlier in this and previous chapters we referred to the type and structure of the

operations and activities undertaken within an organization. We distinguished

between:



? different types of primary activities, for example inbound logistics or

purchasing and marketing and sales activities

? these primary activities and the other commonly found support activities, such

as management of human resources

? different levels of management activities: operational, tactical and strategic

? different types of management tasks within each of these broad activities (i.e.

primary and support activities) and the different levels (i.e. operational, tactical

and strategic).

These include the planning, decision-making, monitoring, evaluation and

control tasks.




The generic models used in the earlier chapters were designed to illustrate these

features and to show their implications for organizational information systems

in general. However, each organization will develop a unique structure to

undertake these activities and management tasks; the factors leading to this

unique structure were outlined in the previous paragraphs.



There are a number of general principles or models which organizations use to

guide the development of their particular organization structure. The following

paragraphs outline two of these major models: the functional or line and staff

model, and the matrix model. These two should suffice to illustrate the major

implications for the organization`s information systems.



FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE



A simple model of a functionally structured organization is shown in Figure 3.7.

Key features of this form of structure include the following:



















FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE








? The functional line activities and responsibilities are those directly associated

with the manufacture of the product or the delivery of the service: handling

receipt of raw materials, production operations, warehousing and distribution.

? The functional staff activities and responsibilities provide the specialist

support to the line activities, such as financial services and human resource

management services. These functions provide a service to the line functions,

enabling them to conduct their operations effectively and efficiently. Some of

these activities will be directed towards the customer (e.g. marketing, while

others provide services to the organization as a whole (e.g. strategic planning).

? Implicit within this structure are the principles of hierarchy and division

responsibility. The chain of command or authority rises vertically through

successively higher levels within particular functions. Decisions o! particular

scale or disagreements between functions on particular decisions lower levels in

the structure are resolved by referring the problem up the hierarchy of command

to the appropriate level at which this may be resolved between the two

functions.

? The division of responsibility means that a particular function has

responsibility and authority to decide factors only within its sphere of

responsibility. The marketing function may decide the appropriate means

promote the product but, in general, it would have no influence overt

manufacturing methods used. In practice, this division of responsibility may not

always be as evident as this might suggest, as the development personal

relationships, working practices and the general culture of l organization may

modify the outcome.



MATRIX ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE


The matrix type of organization structure provides an alternative form to the

functional structure. A number of features are associated with the matrix form

of structure:

? The organization is divided on two bases, as illustrated in Figure 3.8: a

functional basis (e.g. marketing and manufacturing) and a product/service basis

(where the components are often identified as separate business units or profit

centres).

? Product/service units have responsibility for the total business operations,

management and development of the specific range of products or services

(including, for example, research and development, marketing, sales,

manufacture, distribution and financial systems).

? The functional units contribute their specialist knowledge, skills and expertise

to each of the business units as required. However, the functional resources are

not owned by the product/service units but are in most cases hired by those

units. The functional units have their own management structure with

responsibilities for the management of all the staff and the services offered by

the function.



MATRIX ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE



? The operation of a product/service unit Involves a ham of functional

specialists, brought together to manage or develop the particular product or

project. The composition of these teams may vary over time as the product p

through different stages in its life cycle, each one requiring different specialist

inputs. Each functional unit will be involved simultaneously in a number

different products or projects and some individual members may also involved

in more than one project simultaneously.
The key advantage of this form of structure is that it can readily adapt to -

demands, i.e. the development of new products or technologies, or the changing

needs of existing products.



Other advantages claimed for the matrix structure are these:



? it is more efficient in allowing the exploitation of specialist functional

resources

? employees have a more direct involvement and interest in particular products

and hence are more motivated to achieve success

? it encourages a more market-oriented approach within each product/sent unit

? it improves communication and co-ordination between functions.



The matrix structure is also said to have a number of disadvantages, the more

significant of which include the following:



? individuals experience personal problems, as they must often report to more

than one manager, say, a functional manager and one or more product service

managers

? co-ordination and communications across the total organization rather than

within the particular product/service group may he less effective because the

complex interrelationships of functions and product/service groups

? tensions may arise between the objectives and plans pursued by the

product/service units and those pursued by the functional units.



We are not concerned here with an exhaustive evaluation of the alternative

organization structures. Our aim is to use this discussion of the two alternatives
to clarify the structural issues that relate to planning improvements to

information systems within the given structure.



THE EFFECT OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE ON THE IN

FORMATION SYSTEM



The primary objective of any information system must be to provide an

effective and efficient support service to all its users. To achieve this, the

system should be



? capable of acting independently of the specific organizational structured any

particular point in time

? adaptable to the changing structure of the organization

? flexible enough to meet the changing needs of the organization

? independent of the organization`s power structure.



Let us consider these four desirable attributes in more detail.



INDEPENDENT OPERATION



If the information system is tied too closely to the structure, local needs may be

satisfied but organization-wide demands may be met less effectively. For

example, the information system that is tailored to meet the structure and needs

of the marketing function may prove less effective in providing the same data to

other users elsewhere in the organization. On the other hand, there is

considerable evidence to show that uncontrolled systems development often

results in fragmented systems provision for each element in the organization,

involving considerable duplication of effort and resources. So the development
of an effective system for the total organization`s needs may require

compromises in terms of meeting the needs of specific functions or users.



ADAPTABILITY TO CHANGE



Our earlier discussion of the functional and matrix organization structures high

lighted the need for greater responsiveness from the information system in a

matrix organization as new products/services emerge, the composition of

existing teams alters or their information requirements change.





FLEXIBILITY



In the matrix structure, different business units may have differing information

needs, reflecting the problems faced by the particular business at its stage of

development. Thus, the provision of a standardized system to all product or

service groups may prove totally inappropriate.



INDEPENDENCE FROM THE POWER STRUCTURE



The power structure may seek to influence the information system structure on

the basis that exclusive knowledge of certain types of information provides the

possessor with a degree of power. If the information system is used in this way,

it will lose credibility with the other users or suppliers of data to the system.



Changes in strategy and, hence, in information needs may occur in advance of

any significant changes in the structure of the organization. Research studies

have established that changes in the strategy of an organization usually take
place before any change in the organizational structure. Indeed, organizations

may seek to maintain their present structure for a number of years following a

significant change in strategy, before being compelled to change the structure to

ensure the effective management of the new strategy. The information system

needs to adapt to the changing needs of the management as strategies change

and the information to monitor and control these new strategies changes. lying

the information system too closely to the structure rather than to the needs of

different levels of management would result in a failure to meet the objectives

of the information system in any organization.









THE INFORMATION REQUIRED



Up to this point, we have assumed that the primary information requirements

are to permit the organization to monitor and control the way in which its

processing

systems work together to meet the demands of the external environment. Thus

production must supply sufficient stock so that the sales force can confidently

locate buyers and thereby generate revenue. The data required to build up a

picture of these processes are limited in their potential information content. So

when the production department supplies data on the number of units

manufactured in each time period, the following data from a series of key

questions would also be desirable:



1. Costing data. What volume of raw materials and consumables was used and

what was the level of wastage? How many effort-hours were required to
produce the given level of output? What is the value of capital resource tied up

in the plant and equipment used for this output?

2. Scheduling and production data. What is the percentage of productive

capacity utilization, i.e. what is the level of plant and equipment reliability?

How frequently does it break down? How long does it take to restore

production? How long does it take to retool between different production runs?

What are the shift arrangements? What is the accident record? Is there any

record of sabotage?

3 Personnel data. What is the absenteeism record? In comparing the different

manufacturing processes, where the equipment is comparable, are there

significant differences in the output performance per man-hour? Are the staff

pie. pared to work overtime? Are the staff prepared to engage in further training

4. Predictive data based on what if? questions. If particular work practices were

modified, what would output be? If the scheduling was changed, would

retooling times be reduced? If parts of the equipment were upgraded, what

would output be?



Analysing these data would make it possible to draw a variety of conclusions.;

Thus, it might appear that there is a high absenteeism rate in certain areas

production. The plant may be old and temperamental, the wastage rates high

and staff morale low. Improving the production environment and upgrading the

equipment may provide an opportunity to improve performance. Should the

plant be new, it is obvious that there may be a problem in training, or that the

design of the human machine interface is defective. If it appears that either

situation has been going on for some time, why have none of the operational or

managerial level staff pressed for change?


Thus, the data may supply hard information in terms of real numbers which, can

be processed or analysed. The data may also permit soft information to he

inferred or deduced. This latter category is all the more important when a self

critical appraisal of organizational structure is called for. Power brokers who

play the political game will not freely give information showing man?

inadequacy. The information requirement should therefore be specified to

extract information which is either:



? evidential -- positive data on actual performance; or

? inferential -- data allowing the organization to appraise performance

indirectly, for example through failure to supply evidence of performance or to

take action, and so on.



By using both sets of data together, an information picture of the organizational

structure can be built up which should reveal those issues which justify further

examination by more direct methods of investigation.



ANALYTICAL FRAME WORK OF HUMAN RESOURCE IN

FORMATION SYSTEMS (HRIS)



In most organizations, the human resource/personnel management area a staff

function that supports the activities of the firm`s line subunits. The functions

carried out by personnel administrators and other human resource managers

usually impact all of the other functional areas of an organization.



Today, most organizations recognize their employees as their most important

(and often most expensive) resource. Because of the changing so structures in

the U.S., the internationalization of many businesses, and an r creasing
preponderance of federal, state, and local laws and regulations, ft management

of human resources is now much more complex than it was in the past.

Human resources managers or personnel administrators are typically

responsible for human resource planning, staffing (recruiting, hiring, and

placement), training and development, performance appraisal, and termination

(for example, Firing and outplacement) activities. They may also be responsible

for developing thee salary structure and benefit package for the organization,

negotiating with unions, and ensuring compliance with EEO/AA (Equal

Employment opportunity/Affirmative Action) and OSHA (Occupational Safety

and Health Administration) laws and regulations.












Competitive

Labor

Legal/



Environment

market

regulatory













environment







Organization`s



Strategic



plans







Human resource

Labor

other strategic



Planning system negotitation

HRM systems









System

? HR accounting













? Organizational









development

Compensation/ job analysis /

Recruiting

Training/

Benefits

job design

system development

System



system







system

Government Payroll Personnel files Placement Position Skills Turnover/
reporting

? Application data data

Inventory Inventory absenteeism







? Biographical data









data







? Employee history
A Computer - based HRIS can help personnel/human resource management

become more effective in keeping employee records and in pro . It can also

help organizations plan for the future by enabling staffing estimates and human

resource plans that support the Figure Examples of human resources

management (HAM) functions supported resources information systems

(HAIS).



TYPES OF SOFTWARE AVAILABLE TO SUPPORT HRM

ACTIVITIES


Applicant tracking







Immigration reform


Attendance management





Job analysis


Benefits administration





Job description


Career development





Payroll


Compensation administration



Pension and profit-sharing

administration

Compliance with Americans



Performance

improvement/planning
with Disabilities Act

Computer-based training





Performance monitoring


Data and survey analysis





Relocation software


Employee Assistance





Stress management

Administration Program

Employee communications services

Substance abuse


Employee manuals and handbooks

Succession planning


Employment recruitment and assessment

Temporary services management


Equal Employment Opportunity/



Training administration and
Affirmative Action





Turnover analysis


Flexible benefits administration



Wellness programs


Human resources forecasting/planning



organization`s strategic initiatives and tactical plans. Because of this, continual

enhancements in available software support and external databases are likely.



COIMBINATION OF HRM AND ITES



An information system maybe broadly defined as a series of interrelated

activities concerned with the capture, processing, communication and

conversion of data to information. The main groups of activities in an

information system are shown in Figure 2.1 overleaf and are briefly described

below.



SITUATION OR PROBLEM



An information system is typically concerned with providing data on a

particular situation or problem of concern to the user or organization. Some

systems will be

permanent systems, continuously and regularly collecting data relating to a

particular situation: a sales order processing system, for example, will

continually provide data on the organization`s sales. Other systems, transient

systems, may be established in response to particular needs of the organization

or its users and will continue to operate only while that need remains, for

example the collection of data on the effects of a disruption in the supply of key

components due to an industrial dispute at the primary supplier.




THE INFORMATION SYSTEM : AN OUTLINE MODEL


A transient system may often be established on the basis of data provided by the

permanent information system, which identifies a particular problem requiring

more detailed data and investigation before a solution can be found. In many

respects, it would be preferable to design a system which already contained all

the necessary data for particular problems that arise. However, it is clearly not

possible for an organization to identify in advance all the problems it is likely to

lace.



DATA



As we saw earlier, any situation will contain a wealth of data varying in its

relevance to the user`s particular needs and situation. An important element in

the design of information systems is establishing clearly what the data needs are

for each user and designing the system to segregate the most relevant data from

the less relevant or the wholly irrelevant.



DATA CAPTURE



The term data capture` covers the processes of finding the relevant data,

recording it and converting it into a suitable form for further processing and

eventual communication to the user. For example, a doctor seeking to diagnose

a patient`s illness uses a variety of devices to measure and identify the

symptoms: a thermometer, a sphygmomanometer (for blood pressure readings),

and so on. The measurements are then converted to numeric values for further

processing. Clearly, the quality of the measuring devices and the conversion

processes used are crucial both to the quality of the data provided and to the

consequent diagnoses and remedial actions. This is equally true in
organizations, where the problems of measurement and diagnosis are often as

complex as those facing the medical practitioner





PROCESSING



This term encapsulates a range of actions which may be performed on the data

to improve its usefulness to the users. These actions could include:



? summarizing -- reducing the level of detail

? arranging or sorting into a more appropriate order -- say, alphabetically or in

order of size

? storing -- collecting the data until an appropriate volume has been acquired

prior to transmission to the user ? calculating -- performing numerical

calculations on the data, or converting them into more usable units -- for

example converting weights of inputs into monetary values

? selecting -- providing only those data items or events which meet a particular

requirement, such as details of all financial transactions exceeding ?10,000.



COMMUNCATIONS



Communicating the processed data to the user is only part of the overall

communications process within the system, as communications are effectively

taking place between each stage identified in the diagram. However,

communication with users is the area that can be most clearly identified in

practice. It may be carried out by any of the human senses of sight, hearing,

touch or smell, or a simultaneous combination of these senses. The more usual

forms of communication are visual and aural, as these senses are more fully
developed and responsive in most individuals. However, individuals suffering

sight or hearing handicaps often develop very responsive alternative senses to

compensate for their loss.







USERS



Users are themselves a critical element in the overall information system. Not

only are they the primary focus of the data processing activities outlined above,

but they are the essential ingredient which converts data to information and

information to action through the knowledge, understanding and skills which

they bring to bear on the data provided. It is only at the level of the user that the

information system actually provides benefit or value to the organization: prior

to this the data processing has only been incurring costs.



USER PROCESSING



The users in any information system will themselves conduct further processing

of the information received. In some cases, they will undertake the kind of

processing activities that we outlined above: primary processing, i.e.

calculating, sorting, selecting, and so on. In other cases, the processing activities

will be related more to interpretation, application to the specific circumstances,

judgement and reasoning: these can be termed secondary processing. A good

information system ought to minimize the amount of primary information

processing that users are required to undertake, allowing them to devote their

skills and time to the secondary level. Developments in the field of so-called

expert systems` are beginning to provide valuable support from the information
system for this second level of user processing, particularly in situations where

users apply a logical sequence of rules or procedures in arriving at their

decisions.



OUTCOMES



The end product of any information system must be represented in some form

of outcome. The range of outcomes will vary and may include:

? actions or decisions

? change in a situation, or change in either individual or group behaviour

? improved knowledge and understanding

? a change in the users` perception of a situation.



Ideally, the value of an information system ought to be measured in terms of the

value of these outcomes. However, it is difficult to quantify the benefits derived

from improved knowledge and understanding: such intangible improvements

may not appear to provide any immediate economic advantage but may be

evidenced only by implication, through improved performance in future time

periods.



FEEDBACK



In situations where the outcome of the information system is a specific action or

decision, the user requires some means of assessing the effectiveness of the

action or decision taken. This is achieved through the monitoring function of the

information system, which feeds the results back to the user. This feedback

activity provides the necessary loop back to the start of the outline model of the

information system. The sequence of stages is continually repeated with the
capture, processing and communication of further data through the system,

reflecting the changing situation and problems facing the organization and its

users.



INFORMATION SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT MODEL





INFORMATION SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT MODEL



MARKET-LED



The primary purpose of any organization is to meet the needs of its market or

clients. This applies both to profit-orientated and to not-for-profit-orientated

organizations. The broad aim of all management is to optimize organization

structure, resources and operations to achieve effectiveness and efficiency

meeting market needs and in satisfying corporate purposes and objectives. The

primary function of an information system in this context is to support I

organization, its management and employees in meeting this broad aim.



It is important to note at this stage that the strategic development of information

systems should be primarily dictated by the needs of the market, I

organization`s objectives and the requirements of users within the organization.

The systems development strategy should not be dictated by developments in

the information technologies themselves, as such developments may not be con

tent with the needs of the market, the organization or its users. Many

organizations have based their systems development strategies on current

technological developments, only to find that they have performed less

effectively and efficiently. In many cases this is because the technology has
been in advance of the capacity of the organization or its users to employ or

apply the latest facilities effectively.



NON-INTEGRATED RESOURCES AND PROCESSES



An organization essentially comprises a series of resources, processes and

structures:



? resources: finance, people, land, buildings, equipment, raw materials, and

technical and professional services

? processes: a range of activities (classified in the previous chapter as primary

and support activities) encompassing the production operations, decision

making, planning and control. Organizations have developed a battery of

procedures, tools and techniques to assist in these activities and in the general

management of the processes and resources involved

? structures: organizations also develop a variety of structures to improve the

effectiveness and efficiency of resource utilization and management of the

processes. The more obvious of such structures are the division of the

organization into specialist functions -- marketing, finance, production, and so

on, each responsible for managing particular aspects of the organization`s

resources and processes. Such structures may take a number of different forms,

as we shall show in detail later in this chapter.

The key elements from these groups in terms of information systems

development are:


? the needs of the primary and support activities

? the resources available: people, data, and so on

? management, control and decision-making requirements

? the information systems and the technology available.


INITIAL INTEGRATION PROCESSES



The initial stages in achieving organizational integration involve the

development and design of the organization`s information systems.



1. Identification and evaluation. Analysis of the organization`s information

requirements is the first stage in the integration process. It is important that this

process is focused on the actual requirements of individual users or groups of

users, as opposed to merely assessing their likely requirements. Indeed, the

whole process of systems development needs to be orientated towards user

requirements from the outset and should actively involve users in the overall

process. This links to the key areas identified in the previous paragraph of

understanding the needs of primary and support activities, management and

control requirements, and the people in the organization.

2. Systems development. Generally, the systems development process is

concerned with matching user requirements with the potential of the technology

and the data available in the most effective and efficient manner possible.

3. Implementation, evaluation and follow-up. The inclusion of this stage in the

integration process recognizes two priorities: the importance of the initial

irnplementation of an information system or sub-system, and the need to

continually review the effectiveness of the system once it is operational. In

Chapter 1 we highlighted the dynamic nature of the environment in which

organizations operate. In this situation it is likely that the issues and problems

faced by the organization and its members will be subject to a process of

continual change, resulting in changing information requirements.

4. Systems life cycle (SLC). The process of change in the situation, issues and

problems facing the organization also suggests that an information system will
only have a limited life cycle. The SLC concept (discussed in detail in Chapter

8) reflects this aspect, suggesting that the value of the contribution made by an

information system will change as time progresses and the organizational

situation changes.

5. Facilitating integration. The development of information and communication

systems within an organization provides the potential to achieve integration.

These facilities create the opportunity for the effective exchange and flow of

information between users and between the organization and its environment.

6. Managing integration. While such information and communication systems

development facilitates integration, the realization of this potential requires that

these systems are effectively managed. There is hence an important functional

responsibility for the overall planning, development, co-ordination and

maintenance of the systems. This relates not only to computer facilities and

software but to the overall management of organizational data and information

flows, to system security and to the training and support of users.



THE INTEGRATED ORGANIZATION

The outcome of the integration process based on information systems

development will be an integrated organization, in which:

? problems and issues are identified at an early stage

? decisions can be taken quickly and effectively on the basis of high-quality

information

? relevant information may be accessed easily and quickly to analyse decisions

and decision-makers have the necessary decision support tools for this analysis

? effective communications structure permits the involvement of all appropriate

people in the decision-making process

? decisions are communicated quickly and effectively in terms of new policies,

guidelines, etc., allowing speedy responses to problems
? activities in diverse parts of the organization are co-ordinated more effectively

with each other

? the organization is receptive and responsive to change: new systems, processes

and structures may be developed and implemented rapidly and effectively in

response to changing needs

? performance measurement systems are sufficiently responsive and accurate to

identify early deviations from planned performance levels or objectives.



The key to achieving an integrated organization is effective information systems

development, supported by continuing maintenance and sympathetic

management. The achievement of this objective requires support and

commitment from all members of the organization.

AN INTEGRATED VIEW OF HRIS

We now come to consider decision making in general terms, incorporating all

the types and levels of decision in the organization.



The importance of information to the decision-making process cannot be

overstated, Indeed, The entire decision-making process can be viewed as the

acquisition and processing of information` (MacCrimmon, 1977). For these

purposes, the term decision may be defined in a number of different ways, often

reflecting the situation in which the decision is taking place. However, a broad

definition of the term for the purposes of our current discussion would be:

A decision is a process or a sequence of activities undertaken by an individual

or groups with a view to establishing and implementing a solution to an existing

or potential problem.



Three features of this definition are worth stressing:


I decision making is a process or a sequence of activities which will not always

take place in a continuous or uninterrupted fashion

2 the taking of decisions is both an individual and a group activity, with the

latter likely to be more common in most organizations

3 decisions may be taken in a proactive stance for preparing solutions to

potential future problems, as well as a reactive stance for resolving existing

problems.

Figure 2.5 overleaf provides an outline of the main stages in the decision-

making process and identifies the information inputs associated with each of

them.



THE DECISION TRIGGER



Every decision process requires some factor to trigger or initiate the process.

Data/information is the most likely trigger. For example:

? information identifying defects in components purchased ought to trigger an

examination of the quality standards maintained by the particular supplier and

might lead to a decision to change suppliers

? information revealing increasingly high stock levels of certain finished goods

may trigger an evaluation of market demands and production levels for the

product, leading to future changes in pricing, promotional or production policies

? information on future changes may also initiate the decision process. Thus, a

proposal to change the technology used to produce the organization`s products

may require decisions on financing the capital investment, on amending the

marketing policies to reflect the modernization of plant and/or product, and on

training the staff who will be associated with the new technology

implementation.





































































STAGES IN THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS



PROBLEM DEFINITION



Having initiated the decision-making process, we may then need to define the

cause of the problem. The important issue at this stage is to differentiate

between cause and effect. While decision-makers may be only too aware of the

effect of particular problems on the running of the organization, the

effectiveness of their proposed solution will depend on how well they have

identified and understood the root causal factors. For example, a reduction in

the level of sales revenue may be caused by any number of factors, including

changes in the total size of the market, changing consumer needs, competitors`

actions influencing both price and quantity of sales, and an increase in customer

dissatisfaction due to poor- quality products or support services.

The problems encountered in practice are typically complex, in the sense that

there are usually several causal factors involved. Further, each factor is likely to

interact with one or more of the others, making the effects of any individual

factor difficult to assess. Time is also a vital variable, as the importance of

individual factors may vary as the organization`s situation changes. Thus, en as

the decision-maker is defining the current problem, the nature of the problem

may itself be changing owing to changes in the external environment. In the

sales revenue example we gave earlier, the primary causal factors may have

been established as the competitors` pricing policies and customer

dissatisfaction with quality standards. Competitors` lower prices alone would
have some effect on sales revenues, but when these are combined with customer

dissatisfaction the reduction in sales may be considerably greater than if the

quality standards were high. Continual changes in competitors` prices will result

in a dynamic as well as a complex problem situation. In these situations,

decision-makers not only need the initial information to establish the relevant

causal factors but require this information continually updated to reflect changes

in the problem situation.



PROBLEM STRUCTURING



Defining the problem in terms of the primary causal factors provides the basis

on which to structure the problem. Ibis may take the form of constructing a

model of the problem, highlighting the important dimensions, the scope of the

analysis required and the possible types of solution. Continuing the sales

revenue example above, and assuming that the problem is defined primarily as

competitors` actions, we may structure the problem in terms of:

? which competitors to consider

? the parts of their activities which have some relevance to the problem

? the markets and products involved.

Once this has been done, it becomes easier to make decisions as to which

techniques and tools are appropriate for analysing and resolving the situation.

Two fundamental issues arise at this point.



MODELS



The term model as used in the context of problem structuring may be defined in

a number of ways:
1 The physical model: a two-dimensional or three-dimensional drawing

physical representation of the decision problem, for example a graph showing

the sales revenues of competitors in the market over the last three ye or a model

of a proposed plant layout incorporating new technology features.

2 The symbolic model: a representation of the problem situation using symbols,

equations or mathematical formulae. An example is the use of regression

analysis methods to identify and express the trends in sales revenue.

3 The conceptual model: a representation of the situation in a less specific form,

often in the mind of the decision-maker, and exploiting the available knowledge

and experience of those involved. For example, the previous experience of the

decision-maker may suggest the most likely reactions of the competitors to

changes in price or to promotional activities undertaken by the organization.

This experience may be difficult to capture in either a physical or symbolic type

of model. However, as you will see later, many the developments in supporting

decision-makers are increasingly focusing on methods to capture and represent

such models in a form suitable for analytical appraisal. Advances in spreadsheet

software packages have provided one such vehicle for these developments.





OBJECTIVES

A vital element in structuring the problem situation is a clear and explicit

understanding of the objectives which the decision is seeking to achieve. Tb

objectives may be expressed in a number of different ways for a given decision

situation. For example, in the declining sales revenue case referred to earlier,

the objectives may be expressed as:

? to prevent any further decline in sales revenue

? to redress the decline in sales revenue to previous levels

? to achieve a 5% increase on the previous levels of sales prior to the decline.
Each of these objectives may be further qualified in terms of, say, the

requirement that the objective should be achieved without any reduction in the

profit margins per unit, or within the current sales and marketing budgets. The

objectives thus not only determine the broad parameters of the potential

solutions and the criteria against which each potential solution should be judged

but also indicate the type and quality of information required and the depth of

analysis which must be performed to verify which of the proposed solutions is

most likely to succeed.



INFORMATION REQUIREMENTS



The major by-product from the structuring of the problem is the identification

(at

least initially) of:

? the information required to analyse those aspects or dimensions of the problem

that are seen as important

? the information required to evaluate possible alternative solutions to the

situation.



To continue our sales revenue example, the decision-maker may identify the

initial information required as:



? the sales patterns for the product over the last two years

? the market shares of the organization and of each major competitor

? the organization`s pricing levels over this period

? the prices of, say, the three major competitors` products over a similar period

? the cost structure of the product and the resulting profit margins.
The key factor in this identification process is the definition of the type and

quality of information that will be required to support the decision making.

There are many possible dimensions to information quality, including variables

such as the level of detail and the degree of accuracy and reliability in the initial

data. In certain cases, detailed and accurate costs and other financial

information may be required to support decisions on changes to product pricing

structures, while in other cases broad estimates of costs and margins may prove

sufficient. This aspect of the different qualitative dimensions of the information

required for different decisions will be outlined in Chapter 3.



INFORMATION ANALYSIS



The analysis of the information specified is undertaken by the decision-maker.

It will involve both quantitative and qualitative approaches.

Quantitative approaches may include statistical methods such as graphical trend

plotting, regression analysis or correlation analysis. This process need not be

automated, and the analysis may involve a series of manual data processing

activities including the sorting, coding, selection and summarizing of the data

available. Following this analysis, the decision-maker may apply predetermined

criteria in evaluating the situation and/or undertake some degree of subjective

evaluation of the results produced in relation to the situation.



ADEQUACY OF INFORMATION



An integral part of the process is an evaluation by those involved in taking the

decision as to whether or not the information presently available is adequate to

enable the decision to be made. if the decision-makers consider that the

information is inadequate, they will specify the further information required and
arrange for its collection and subsequent analysis. This is represented by the

loop (the dotted line) in Figure 2.5. Requests for further information may be the

result of one or more of the following:

1. identifying a lack of data concerning certain dimensions of the problem. This

may be due to poor initial problem specification, to inadequate information

collection or to the subsequent appreciation of the importance of particular

factors

2. the poor quality of the Information provided -- an issue addressed more fully

later in this chapter

3. recognizing the need to search for further information to support and confirm

a tentative decision already taken

4. a deliberate action to delay the decision and its implementation pending r

assessment of potential reactions internally and externally. This may involve the

decision-makers in requesting additional information that is unlikely to

influence the decision taken to any significant extent.



This assessment of whether the available information is adequate should also be

considered in cost--benefit terms. The decision-makers should assess the likely

costs and the feasibility of collecting further information against the potential

benefits arising from the above list. However, it is most unlikely in practice that

the decision-makers will ever achieve the state in which there is perfect

information about all the relevant dimensions of the problem situation. The

primary difficulty in practice is that the greater the level of information quality

specific: by the decision-maker, the greater the cost of producing it is likely to

be. When it comes to justifying this high level of cost, it will be recognized that

it is difficult to assess the potential benefits of the additional information.

Decision-making commonly make subjective approximations, asserting that the

additional information may be useful. But it will usually be impossible to
quantify this value o usefulness in advance, and it may not even be possible to

do so after receiving the information. The reason for this difficulty is that

additional information will probably only have a marginal effect, often doing no

more than providing confirmation of the decision already taken. So, while it

may be argued that decision-makers ought to continue to collect and a

additional information until the marginal benefit derived from the last item of

information received equates to the cost of providing that information,

decision-makers are in practice unable to achieve this through their inability to

quantify the marginal costs a benefits.



DECISION TAKING



At some stage in this process, the decision-maker will proceed to the decision

taking stage. Arrival at this moment may be at the natural conclusion of an

exhaustive analytical process, or it may be more premature. Decisions are often

hurried because:

? a deadline has been set, or the decision-maker is reacting to other less form

time pressures which make it expedient to produce a solution, even thou it is

known to be less than perfect

? there may be no further information or analytical methods easily available

? the decision-maker may be too tired to continue

? more pressing problems may require attention.

Sadly, in these more competitive times, the premature rather than the exhaustive

response is likely to be the norm in practical business. The concluding decisions

are taken because it is considered inexpedient and uneconomic to take no

decision. They may be a positive response In terms of a particular action

proposed, or a more negative or passive response, by deciding not to take any

action.
In summary, information contributes to the decision-making process as:



? a trigger to initiate the process

? a resource to facilitate the definition and structuring of the problem situation

? a resource to aid the evaluation of the proposed decision

? a vehicle to communicate the decision to others and to provide a basis for

implementing the decision

? a bask for feeding back the results of a decision to facilitate performance

monitoring and control during the implementation and subsequent running of

the planned responses.



PROGRAMMABLE AND NON-PROGRAMMABLE DECISIONS



A further distinction has important implications for an organization`s

information requirements. Decisions may be classified as either programmable,

highly structured decisions, or non-programmable, highly unstructured

decisions. In the case of programmable decisions, the problem situations are

generally predictable and so the decision-making activities of problem

definition, structuring, analysis and resolution may be specified or programmed

in advance. The solution will normally depend on the application of algorithms.

Programmable decisions are usually those which:



? occur relatively frequently

? require the consideration of only a few factors which may be incorporated in a

predetermined structure

? display relatively simple interrelationships between the various factors

? have a limited and predictable range of possible solutions
? have decision criteria that may be explicitly stated and easily applied to

selecting the most appropriate solution from the limited range.



Examples of programmable decisions include:

? the credit rating of new customers

? quality control inspection

? equipment maintenance

? delivery scheduling.



If the organization is able to develop suitable algorithms (i.e. formalistic rules

for each general decision-making situation, the information requirements will he

readily identifiable in advance and, given the frequency with which such

decisions are likely to occur, the organization would probably incorporate the

collection of the necessary information as part of the routine transaction

information system outlined earlier in this chapter. An alternative term for

programmable decisions is routine decisions.



Non-programmable decisions are usually less routine and less predictable in at

least one of the stages of the decision process. They may, for example, require

novel approaches to defining, structuring or analysing the problem situation, a

require the decision-maker to develop and formulate the criteria to be used

selecting the best solution strategy. This involves the application of heuristics(

system of making choices using non-linear methods). Examples of such

decisions include:



? fixing the pricing policy for a new product

? selecting the best location for a new warehouse and distribution outlet
? evaluating a proposal to acquire another organization to provide the capacity

to expand market share and production capacity.



Each of these decisions will have one or more unique features: for exam the

prospective sites for creating a new warehouse will all have different attributes,

some of which, on investigation, will prove to be advantageous, others

disadvantageous. Although it would be possible to lay down general

information requirement guidelines in advance, the decision-makers are only

able to specify the actual information requirements for each decision when the

preliminary problem analysis has taken place. This means that the information

system must have a degree of flexibility in its design and operation to enable it

to respond to the variable information demands of the non-programmable

decisions. An alternative term for non-programmable decisions is non-roil

decisions.



This distinction between programmable and non-programmable decisions and

their information requirements will be developed in Chapter 3.



PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION



Having selected what appears to he the appropriate solution strategy for

particular problem situation, we approach the next stage in the decision proc

planning and implementing the necessary steps to make the decision effective

Figure 2.6 illustrates the main stages in this planning and implementation phase.

Planning involves:

? determining the sequence (logical or otherwise) of action and/or inction which

will be required

? establishing the dates or times required for the completion of each step in plan


? estimating the resources which will be required for, and the durations of, the

individual steps

? scheduling the programme of necessary activities.

Although planning and implementation are concerned with the detail of putting

a decision into practice, the process itself incorporates a series of second-o

decisions involving, for example, establishing priorities of resource usage wit

the organization as a whole and making commercial judgements as to the timing

of the implementation. A more detailed treatment of the issues and methods

involved is provided in a later discussion of project management.


















































STAGES IN PLANNING, IMPLEMENTATION AND CONTROL



PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT, EVALUATION, MONITORING

AND CONTROL



The final stage in the decision-making process, as illustrated in Figure 2.6,

involves measuring the levels of performance achieved against those set as the

justification for the project in the decision-making and planning stages. The

measurement of actual performance against planned or budgeted performance is

a fairly common technique which is used in most of the standard planning

approaches. Performance measures may include timescales, target completion

dates, resource usage, costs incurred, or other similar measures of efficiency a

effectiveness. The original decision-maker, or those subsequently responsible

and accountable for implementing the decision, will continuously monitor the

performance levels achieved both during the implementation phase and in it

initial and subsequent operation. For these purposes, the monitoring may b

directed towards the assessment of both effectiveness and efficiency. Since

commercial organizations depend on the efficiency of their systems to maintain

or enhance profitability, a considerable proportion of any organization`s

information processing activities is necessarily devoted to supporting

performance measurement and monitoring. These activities may be related

either to sped projects or to the ongoing operations of the primary and support

activities.


PERFORMANCE MONITORING



In a number of areas, the organization will incorporate a continuous process at

performance monitoring as a part of the transaction processing system. This

may involve the regular recording of costs, revenues, time spent, resources

used, a so on, in its operations. A prerequisite of performance measurement is

the establishment of clearly defined objectives or targets which can be related to

the! desired performance levels as the key parameters (for example, profit level

budgets or standard costs). These may be established follows:



1 the actual levels of performance required will be explicitly stated

2 some minimum acceptable levels of performance may he indicated

3 the targets may be implicit rather than explicitly stated.



Irrespective of the method adopted for setting performance requirements, the

information received will be used to indicate whether performance is adhering

to planned targets or deviating from those targets. The scale of any deviation

detected will influence both the degree of urgency perceived necessary and the

scope of any corrective action to keep the operation under control -- that is,

within the planned performance parameters.



CONTROL



The control process is a consequence of performance monitoring and involves

taking actions either to prevent anticipated deviations From planned

performance or to correct deviations after they have occurred. Control will
encompass decision-making elements together with planning elements, and may

involve:

? applying corrective action to existing operations or to stages in the planned

implementation

? modifying future plans to reflect changes in present circumstances or current

performance levels

? re-appraising objectives and performance targets in the light of current

performance.



REACTIVE AND PROACTIVE APPROACHES



It is important to recognize the distinction between the reactive and the pro

active approaches to control, as these have differing implications for the

organization`s information system.

In the former approach, the organization`s management responds to existing

deviations from the planned activities or performance levels. Managers will act

to correct the deviations, or to prevent those deviations from damaging the

future interests of the organization.

In the proactive approach, management consciously explores the potential

sources of future deviations with a view to instituting the necessary avoidance

or damage limitation measures in advance. The implications for the information

system of a proactive approach are that the information requirements will be

oriented more to future events, and the decision support tools and software will

be directed more towards forecasting, model building and sensitivity analysis,

providing the management with assessments which will help to answer the what

if? type of question.
Reactive approaches will rely more heavily on historical data, although, again,

the management will require decision support tools to underpin the analysis of

alternative solutions and their implications.

It is likely that both approaches will co-exist in most organizations. This reflects

the fact that the development of paranoia in management is not a viable

strategy:

if an organization continually plans on the basis of the worst possible case and

seeks to predict ever potential deviation in advance, a substantial amount of

redundant activity and expenditure will be achieved. Responsible management

acknowledges that the organization must be able to respond flexibly to existing,

realistically predictable and unpredicted problems. The result is that the

emphasis in management development and training is moving strongly towards

the need to adopt a more proactive approach, and this trend is being increasingly

supported and facilitated by developments in information technologies.

The ability to control a situation depends largely on the receipt of timely and

good-quality performance information. Should symptoms of the deviation from

planned or anticipated performance targets not be clearly signalled in time, the

necessary trigger to initiate the decision-making activities within the control

process will not arise. One of the difficulties in designing an effective control

system is the potential volume of information which may be generated on the

organization`s activities. The greater the volume, the greater the level of

resources that must be devoted to analysing and reviewing it. An important

principle adopted by main organizations is therefore that of exception reporting

or management by exception`. This operates on the presumption that actual

performance levels either matching or closely matching the planned levels are

under control and do not require special attention. Thus, management requires

information only on those areas of performance that are failing to meet the

planned levels by a significant margin, as these may be considered to be out of
control and to require attention. This principle has important implications for

the design and operation of management information systems.



COMMUNICATIONS



The communications system in any organization is essentially concerned with

the movement of data between one area or element and another. It should be

considered as the system of veins and arteries which carries the life blood of

data to all parts of the organization. In the strategic brain of the organization

decisions are made which must be circulated to all sections and units. But to

function efficiently, the brain must be refreshed by the oxygen` of data drawn

from the external and internal monitoring senses. To that extent, the

communications system is the heart of the organization`s information

syste4mproviding channels for the effective and efficient transfer of data to the

right person in the right place, so that quality information may be transmitted.

The

communication of information in an organization may be classified into two

broad forms:



1. Hard communications, where there is some physical, tangible or hard co of

the information being transmitted -- a written memorandum or left minutes of a

meeting, a tape recording of a telephone conversation, or electronic recording

on a computer`s magnetic disk. In each of these casa there is a tangible record

of the information which may be passed to receiver and, if required, provide a

permanent record of that information.

2. Soft communications, where the information is transmitted in a less tangible

form: the tone of voice, the facial expression or other mannerisms us while

orally transmitting the information, or the general atmosphere it which the
communication takes place. These less tangible features may particularly

important for the correct interpretation of the information, In may equally be

responsible for incorrect interpretation of the information b, the receiver, by

giving undue weight to certain dimensions or elements.



Both types of communication co-exist in almost every organization. From the

information systems development and design point of view, however, the

emphasis tends to centre on mechanisms for delivering the hard forms of the

organization`s information. This is mainly because economical methods have

been developed to capture, store, process and transmit this type of information

by using the electronic media. The development of cost-effective processing

methods for the soft elements is less readily available This would take the form

I of teleconferencing systems incorporating live CCIV links, and electronic

messaging systems that convert video images into electronic media prior storage

and re-convert then when they are required. There is little doubt that the

handling of these soft elements is technically feasible, and that the are likely to

become increasingly cost-effective (and hence useful) in the future.



IT ADOPTION EFFORTS & OVERCOMING PROBLEMS



NEW DECISION MAKING SCENARIO



Today`s business manager finds his job more challenging than ever before in

view of the present day dynamic business environment. The dynamism in the

environment (both external and internal) is all pervasive affecting each of the

functional areas of business management. The external environment is

characterised by, among others, increased competition, rapidly changing

technologies and higher pace of globalisation of business. On the other hand,
the internal environment is subject to varying degrees of centralisa -

tion/decentralisation of operations, flattening of organisation structures,

mergers/acquisitions and disinvestments leading to diversification of business

including the product mix. As a consequence, the decision making scenario is

changing rapidly and significantly. The new decision making environment is

characterised by increasing:



? cost of lost opportunities per unit of time taken in decision making,

? frequency of occurrence of events/developments in internal and external

environments,

? sensitivity of enterprises to developments in the external environment, and

? multiplicity of factors and their changing influences.



Business managers have to make numerous decisions in order to achieve the

goals of the organisation. These decisions should be rational. The rationality of

a decision constitutes consideration of information about all the possible factors

and the circumstances having a bearing on the decision. It is, thus, imperative

for a successful manager to be concerned about the availability of information

required for taking decisions.



ELEMENTS OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS



As the quality of information generated through the IT infrastructure depends,

to a great extent, on the IT resources, they are also sometimes termed as

elements of information systems. Some authors add one more element to this

list -- that is procedures. These procedures include the operational and control

procedures for the use of IT infrastructure. The procedures play an important

role in the smooth and effective utilisation of information resource. They also
protect the information resource and maintain its quality. Thus, the procedures

as element of information system refer to the instructions to users regarding the

use of IT infrastructure for nor mal day-to-day activity and also for handling

special situations such as systems failures and crashes. They include user access

permissions and disaster recovery procedures as well. These elements of

information system are represented in Fig. 1.6.





























ELEMENTS OF AN INFORMATION SYSTEM



QUALITY

OF

INFORMATION

--

ADDING

VALUE

TO

INFORMATION



There are many attributes that are associated with good quality information.

Each of these attributes adds value to information. The process of generation of

information must focus on the quality of information by aiming at improving

the degree of each of these attributes. Any compromise made regarding the
quality of information due to the technical, physical or economic constraints

must be made known to the user of information, at the time of communicating

the information.



Following attributes add value to the quality of information:

(a) Promptness in availability and updation Decision is to be taken within a

time frame and therefore, information must be available within the desired time

frame. It is well said Information delayed is information denied.` Some types

of information is required periodically and should be made available to the

user regularly and timely so as to avoid delay in decision making. The other

types of information needs are sudden and irregular. Such needs arise as and

when a business opportunity or threat is perceived. Such

information, if provided promptly can help manager make quicker decision to

minimise loss of opportunity or mitigate the possible loss due to business threat.

Updating of information is, thus, a regular activity in any good information

system. In fact, some of the information systems are designed in such a way that

the stock of information is updated automatically, immediately after an event is

taken on record. Such information systems are also called real time systems.



(b) Accuracy Accuracy is the degree of the absence of error in the process of

generation of information. It is an important attribute of good information.

However, increasing the accuracy may have a cost It is, therefore, necessary to

determine the acceptable levels of ac curacy for each type of information. For

example, the cost estimate for the product need to be as accurate as possible

since a minor inaccuracy may have significant impact on the performance of the

enterprise. However, the estimate of total size of the market and the company`s

share in it with comparatively higher degree of error - may still be of great value

to the decision maker.


(c) Precision is an important virtue of good quality in- formation. Too much of

information sometimes results in dumping of important information in the heap

of details that may not be required at a particular point of time. Excessive detail

of information results in information overload causing what is now being

termed as Information Fatigue Syndrome. Only precise information is respected

and used by managers. Unnecessary details an. just filed.



(d) Completeness Information communicated to a manager should be complete

and meet all his needs. Incomplete information can be misleading and may

result in wrong decisions. That is why, a manager must insist on his

involvement in defining the information that shall be made available to him. In

case, providing comprehensive information is not feasible for one or the other

reason, the manager must be made aware of this fact, so that the incomplete

information is used with caution.



(e) Unambiguity Clarity of information is an important attribute of good

information. Information must be unambiguous and should be communicated in

such a way that it conveys the same meaning to different users. Modern data

bases maintain data dictionaries that clearly define the variable used in the

information in order to standardise the terminology used in reports.

In addition, there are other attributes such as quantifiability, verifiability,

unbiasedness, etc. that one may attempt to incorporate to improve the quality of

information. To what extent the quality of information can be maintained, it

shall depend upon the cost considerations, nature and source of information,

time available for generating information and such other factors.