PURINE METABOLISM
? The process of synthesis of complex end
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product(s) in a metabolic pathway from simpleprecursors molecule is called as de novo synthesis
(de novo = `anew', i.e. starting `from scratch')
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? The three processes that contribute to purine
nucleotide biosynthesis are, in order of decreasing
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importance.1.Synthesis from amphibolic intermediates
(synthesis de novo).
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2. Phosphoribosylation of purines.
3. Phosphorylation of purine nucleosides.
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DIGESTION OF NUCLEICACIDS
.
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? The nucleic acids in the diet
are hydrolyzed to a mixture of
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nucleotides by ribonucleaseand
deoxy
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ribonuclease
present in pancreatic and
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intestinal secretions.? Then nucleotidases liberate the
phosphate from nucleotides.
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? The resulting nucleosides are
hydrolyzed by nucleosidases
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forming free bases and pentosesugars.
? Dietary purine bases are
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not used for synthesis of tissuenucleic acids.
? Instead they are degraded to uric acid in the enterocytes.
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? Most of the uric acid enters the blood and is eventuallyexcreted in the urine.
? Humans synthesize the nucleic acids and their derivatives
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ATP, NAD+, coenzyme A, etc, from amphibolic
intermediates.
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? However, injected purine or pyrimidine analogs,including potential anticancer drugs, may nevertheless be
incorporated into DNA.
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? The incorporation of injected [3H]thymidine into newly
synthesized DNA thus can be used to measure the rate of
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DNA synthesisDenovo
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synthesisSynthesis of purine
base step by step on
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the ribose 5phosphate
Synthesis of
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purinenucleotides
Addition of ribose 5-
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Salvage
phosphate to the
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pathwaypreformed purine
bases or addition of
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phosphate to the
purine nucleosides
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? Denovo purine biosynthesis occurs from basic
precursors and a new purine ring is synthesized
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using various metabolic intermediates assources of carbon, nitrogen etc.
? This is then used to produce nucleosides and
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nucleotides
? In de novo purine
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biosynthesis pathway - D-ribose 5
-phosphate is used to synthesize a nucleotide inosine
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monophosphate ( IMP).? This IMP is then converted into AMP and GMP
which are the end products of this pathway.
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? There is regulation both at the level of synthesis of
IMP and then its conversion into AMP and GMP.
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? Denovo purine biosynthesis is an expensive processfor the cell and uses many metabolic intermediate in
the synthesis of purine ring.
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Sources of different atoms of purine ring
N5N10 ?
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MethenylTetrahydro
N10 ?Formyl
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folatetetrahydrofolate
Sources of nitrogen and carbon atoms of the purine ring
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Denovo synthesis of purine nucleotides? Purines are synthesized by most of the tissues
? The major site is--- liver .
? Erythrocytes, polymorphonuclear leukocytes &
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brain cannot produce purines.
? Subcellular site--- cytoplasm
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.Denovo synthesis of purine nucleotides
SYNTHESIS OF IMP
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STEP 1
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? Ribose5-phosphate,
produced in the hexose
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monophosphate shunt ofcarbohydrate metabolism
is the starting material for
purine
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nucleotidesynthesis.
? It reacts with ATP to
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form
phsophoribosyl
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pyrophosphate (PRPP).? PRPP
Synthetase
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is
inhibited by PRPP
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STEP 2
Rate limiting step
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? Glutamine transfers it's amidenitrogen to PRPP to replace
pyrophosphate and produce
5phosphoribosylamine
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? The enzyme PRPP glutamyl
amidotransferase is controlled
by feedback inhibition of
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nucleoltides (IMP, AMP andGMP,).
? This reaction is the 'committed.
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STEP 3
? Phosphoribosylamine reacts
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with glycine in the presence ofATP to form glycinamide
ribosyl-5-phosphate
or
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glycinamide ribotide (GAR)
STEP 4
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? N5,N10-formyl-tetrahydrofolate
donates the formyl group and
the
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product
formed
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isformylglycinamide
ribosyl
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5phosphate.
N5,N10-formyl-tetrahydrofolate
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Formylglycinamide ribosyl 5phosphateSTEP 5
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? Glutamine transfers thesecond amido amino group
Formylglycinamide ribosyl-5-phosphate
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to
produce
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formylglycinamidineribosyl 5phosphate
Formylglycinamidine ribosyl-5-phosphate
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STEP 6
? The imidazole ring of
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the purine is closed inan ATP dependent Formylglycinamidine ribosyl-5phosphate
reaction to yield 5-
RING CLOSURE
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aminoimidazole ribosyl
5-phosphate
Aminoimidazole ribosyl-5-phosphate
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STEP 7
? Incorporation of CO2
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(carboxylation) occurs to
yield
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aminoimidazole Aminoimidazole ribosyl-5-phosphatecarboxylate ribosyl 5-
phosphate.
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? This
carboxylation
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reaction does not requirethe vitamin biotin and /or
ATP which is the case
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with
most
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ofthe
carboxylation reaction.
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Aminoimidazole Carboxylate
ribosyl-5-phosphate
STEP 8
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? Aspartate condenses with
aminoimidazole
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Aminoimidazole Carboxylatecarboxylate ribosyl 5-
ribosyl-5-phosphate
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phosphate.
to
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formaminoimidazole
4-
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succinyl
carboxamide
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ribosyl 5phosphateAminoimidazole -succinyl
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carboxamide ribosyl -5 - phosphateSTEP 9
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? Adenylosuccinaseor
Adenylosuccinate lyase
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cleaves off fumarate and Aminoimidazole -succinylcarboxamide ribosyl -5 - phosphate
only the amino group of
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aspartate is retained toyield
aminoimidazole
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carboxamide ribosyl 5-phosphate.
Aminoimidazole Carboxamide
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ribosyl-5-phosphateSTEP 10
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? N10-formyl-THF donatesa one-carbon moiety to
produce
Aminoimidazole Carboxamide
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formimidoimidazole
4-
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ribosyl-5-phosphatecarboxamide ribosyl 5-
phosphate.
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?With this reaction, all thecarbon and nitrogen atoms
of
purine
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ring
are
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contributedby
the
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respective sources.
Formimidoimidazole Carboxamide
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ribosyl-5-phosphateSTEP 11
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H2ORing closure
IMP cyclohydrolase
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Formimidoimidazole Carboxamide
ribosyl-5-phosphate
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Inosine monophosphate(IMP)
The final reaction catalysed by cyclohydrolase leads to ring
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closure with an elimination of water molecule fromformimidoimidazole ribosyl-5-P by Inosine monophosphate
(IMP) cyclohydrolase forms IMP.
Synthesis of AMP and GMP from IMP
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? Inosine monophosphate is the immediate precursor for theformation of AMP & GMP
? Aspartate condences with IMP in the presence of GTP to
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produce Adenylosuccinate which on cleavage forms AMP.
? For the synthesis of GMP, IMP undergoes NAD+
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dependentdehydrogenation
to
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form
Xanthosine
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monophosphate ( XMP).? Glutamine then transfers amide nitrogen to XMP to
produce GMP. This requires ATP.
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STEP-13
STEP-12
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STEP-14
Conversion Of IMP to AMP and GMP
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STEP-15MUST REMEMBER
ANTIFOLATE
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DRUGS&
GLUTAMINE
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ANALOGS BLOCK PURINE NUCLEOTIDE
BIOSYNTHESIS
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Compoundsthat
inhibit
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formation
of
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tetrahydrofolates and therefore block purinesynthesis have been used in cancer chemotherapy.
Inhibitory compounds and the reactions they
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inhibit include
? Azaserine -----------------reaction
? Diazanorleucine ---------reaction
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? 6-mercaptopurine -------reactions and? mycophenolic acid -------reaction
FORMATION OF DIPHOSPHATE AND
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TRIPHOSPHATE NUCLEOTIDES
? AMP and GMP are phosphorylated using ATP
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as the source of phosphate to first makenucleoside di phosphate and then nucleoside
triphosphate i.e. ADP, ATP, GDP and GTP
CONVERSION OF RIBONUCLEOTIDES TO
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DEOXY RIBONUCLEOTIDES? The synthesis of purine & pyrimidine deoxy ribonucleotides
occur from ribonucleotides by a reduction at the C2 of
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ribose moity.? This reaction is catalyzed by enzyme RIBONUCLEOTIDE
REDUCTASE.
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? The enzyme ribonucleotide reductase itself provides the
hydrogen atoms needed for reduction from its sulfhydryl
groups.
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? The reducing equivalents, in turn, are supplied by
Thioredoxin, a monomeric protein with two cysteine
residues.
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? NADPH-dependent thioredoxin reductase converts the
oxidised thioredoxin to reduced form
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? Deoxy ribonucleotides are formed from reduction of
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ribo-nucleoside diphosphates.? Monophosphate and triphosphate are not reduced to
corresponding deoxy ribonucleotides
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PURINE SALVAGE PATHWAY? The free purines ( adenine, guanine & hypoxanthine ) are
formed in the normal turnover of nucleic acids & also
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obtained from the dietary sources.
? The free purines are converted to corresponding
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nucleotides, & this process is known as `salvage pathway'.? Adenine phosphoribosyl transferase catalyses the
formation of AMP from adenine.
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? Hypoxanthine-guanine
phosphoribosyl
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transferase(HGPRT) converts guanine & hypoxanthine respectively,
to GMP & IMP.
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? Phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate (PRPP) is the donor of
ribose 5 phosphate in the salvage pathway.
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? The salvage pathway is particularly important in certaintissues such as erythrocytes & brain where denovo
synthesis of purine nucleotides is not operative.
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1. Pu + PR-PP Pu-RP + PPi
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? A second salvage mechanism involves phosphoryltransfer from ATP to a purine ribonucleoside (Pu-R):
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Pu-R + ATP PuR-P + ADP
? Phosphorylation of the purine nucleotides, catalyzed
by adenosine kinase converts adenosine and
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deoxyadenosine to AMP and dAMP.Or
REGULATION OF PURINE NUCLEOTIDE
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BIOSYNTHESIS? The de novo biosynthesis is regulated in two
ways
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1. Regulation of IMP formation
2. Regulation of AMP and GMP formation from
IMP.
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1. Regulation of IMP formation? Occurs at first two reaction catalyzed by
i. PRPP synthase
ii. Glutamine phosphoribosyl ? amido-
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transferase.
Though both are regulatory enzymes, the
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second step catalyzed by amidotransferase isalso a committed step for purine synthesis.
Hence it is more important.
i. REGULATION OF PRPP SYNTHASE
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? The overall determinant of the rate of de novo purinenucleotide biosynthesis is the concentration of PRPP.
? This, in turn, depends on the rate of PRPP synthesis,
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utilization, degradation, and regulation.
? The rate of PRPP synthesis depends on the availability
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of ribose 5-phosphate and on the activity of PRPPsynthase
? Activity of PRPP synthase is allosterically inhibited by
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both the adenosine and guanosine nucleotides i.eAMP, ADP, GMP and GDP.
ii. REGULATION OF AMIDOTRANSFERASE
? Amidotransferse is feedback inhibited by products i.e.
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AMP, ADP, GMP and GDP.
? AMP and GMP act as competitive inhibitors.
? So, at a high PRPP (substrate ) concentration, AMP and
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GMP will not be able to inhibit the amidotransferase
enzyme.
? Amidotransferse is stimulated by its substrate PRPP.
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(feed forward reaction)
? A very high PRPP concentration will lead to increased
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purines and their catabolism producing hyperuricemia.Regulation of AMP and GMP formation from IMP
? AMP feedback inhibits its own synthesis at the
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adenylosuccinate synthase level.? Simultaneously ATP stimulate GMP synthesis at
xanthine transaminidase step.( cross regulation)
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? Similarly GMP inhibits its own synthesis at the IMP
dehydrogenase step.
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? GTPstimulates
AMP
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synthesis
at
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theadenylosuccinate synthase step. ( cross regulation)
? This cross regulation ensures that adenine and
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guanine nucleotide synthesis is in equal proportion. If
AMP is decreased, it stimulates its own synthesis and
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inhibits GMP synthesis and vice versa.REGULATION OF PURINE
NUCLEOTIDE BIOSYNTHESIS
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? Regulation of IMP is
shown by solid lines
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? AMP and GMP synthesisare shown by dotted lines
E1 = PRPP Synthetase
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E2 = Amido TransferaseE3 = Adenylosuccinate
synthase
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E4 = IMP dehydrogenaseE5
E5 = Xanthine
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transaminidase
DEGREDATION OF PURINE NUCLEOTIDES
1. The end product of purine metabolism in humans is
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uric acid.
2. The nucleotide monophosphates (AMP , IMP &
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GMP) are converted to their respective nucleosideforms (adenosine,inosine & guanosine ) by the
action of nucleotidase.
3. The amino group, either from AMP or adenosine,
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can be removed to produce IMP or inosine
respectively by deaminase.
4. Inosine & guanosine are, raspectively , converted to
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hypoxanthine & guanine (purine bases) by purine
nucleoside phosphorylase.
.
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5. Adenosine is notdegreded by this enzyme, hence it has
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to be converted to inosine by deaminases.
6. Guanine undergoes deamination by guanase to form
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xanthine.7. Xanthine oxidase is an important enzyme that converts
hypoxanthine to xanthine, & xanthine to uric acid.
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8. This enzyme contains FAD, Molybdenum & Iron, & is
mainly found in liver & small intestine.
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9. Uric acid ( 2,6,8-trioxopurine ) is the final excretoryproduct of purine metabolism in humans.
10. Uric acid can serve as an important antioxidant by
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getting itself converted non enzymatically to allantoin.
Guanase
DISORDERS OF PURINE METABOLISM
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1. Hyperuricemia And Gout2. Lesch-Nyhan syndrome
3. Severe Combined Immuno Deficiency (SCID)
4. Purine Nucleoside Phophorylase Deficiency
URIC ACID
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1. Uric acid (2,6,8-trioxopurine) is the end product of
purine metabolism in humans.
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2. The normal concentration of uric acid in the serum ofadults is in the range of 3-7 mg / dl.
3. In women, it is slightly lower (by about 1mg) than in
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men.
4. The daily excreation of uric acid is about 400-600 mg.
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It is filtered , reabsorbed and secreted by kidney tubules.5. At the pH of 5.75 and
above, it forms monosodium
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urate salt which is 10 times more soluble than uricacid.
6. In plasma (pH of 7.4), monosodium urate is
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predominant form present which is relatively moresoluble.
7. Any condition which decreases blood pH (acidosis)
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,therefore, promotes the formation of insoluble uricacid than the more soluble monosodium urate.
1. HYPERURICEMIA AND GOUT
? Increase in blood uric acid level above the normal
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value of >7 mg% is called hyperuricemia.
? This is sometimes associated with increased uric acid
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excreation ( Uricosuria)? In severe hyperuricemia, crystals of sodium urate get
deposited in the soft tissues, particularly in the joints.
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? Such deposits are commonly known as TOPHI.
? This causes inflammation in the joints resulting in a
painful arthritis.
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? Sodium urate &/or uric acid may also precipitate in
kidneys & ureters that result in renal damage & stone
formation.
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GOUT
? Hyperuricemia leading to arthritis is called gout.
? Gout is often called a disease of bones and stones due
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to recurrent stones formation and inflammmation of
joints.
? Gouty arthritis is debilitating painful condition
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leading to deformity of joints.
? Typical
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goutyarthritis
affects
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first
metatarsophalangeal joint.(GREAT TOE)
TYPES OF GOUT
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Two types:
1. Primary ?
due to metabolic defect of uric acid where its
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synthesis as such is increased.2. Secondary ?
- Due to increased nucleotide turn over
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wherein more uric acid is formed .- Uric acid metabolism is normal.
- This occurs as a consequence of some
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other primary disease associated withincreased tissue catabolism
CAUSES OF GOUT
? PRIMARY GOUT
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1. PRPP synthetase over activity due to defective enzyme
varient forms of PRPP synthetase-which are not
subjected to feedback regulation-have been detected.
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This leades to increased production of purines.
2. PRPP-glutamyl-amidotransferase - defective enzyme
The lack of feedback control of this enzyme by purine
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nucleotides also leads to their elevated synthesis.
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3.HGPRTase deficiency or Lesch-Nyhan syndrome
? Deficiency of
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HGPRTase causes a decrease in salvage
pathway of hypoxanthine and guanine to reform
nucleotide.
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? This in turn spares PRPP and results in overproduction
of purine nucleotides and their degradation to uric acid.
4. Glu-6-phosphatase dificiency or Von-Gierke's
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disease
? When this enzyme is deficient, glucose-6-phosphate
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cannot be converted to glucose.? So more glucose-6-phosphate is channeled into the
pentose phosphate shunt pathway, resulting in
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increased availability of ribose-5-phosphate.? This would lead to increased formation of PRPP
ultimately, purine over production.
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? Von Gierke's disease is also associated with
increased activity of glycolysis. Due to this, lactic
acid accumulates in the body which interferes with
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the uric acid excretion through renal tubulesSECONDARY GOUT
A. Increased Production of Uric Acid
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i. Rapidly growing malignant tissues, e.g.leukemias, lymphomas, polycythemia.
ii. Cancer patients on radiotherapy or
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chemotherapy (tumor lysis syndrome) due
to increased cellular turnover
iii. Increased tissue damage due to trauma and
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raised rate of catabolism as in starvation
iv Psoriasis ? skin disease
Secondary Hyperuricemia
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B. Reduced Excretion Rate
i. Renal failure
ii. Treatment with thiazide diuretics which
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inhibit tubular secretion of uric acidiii. Lactic acidosis and keto-acidosis due to
interference with tubular secretion.
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Clinical Findings of Gout? The typical gouty arthritis affects the first
metatarsophalangeal joint (big toe), but other joints may
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also be affected.
? The joints are extremely painful.
? Synovial fluid will show birefringent urate crystals.
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? In chronic cases, uric acid may get deposited around jointscausing swelling (tophi) composed of sodium urate
? Gouty attacks may be precipitated by high purine diet and
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increased intake of alcohol.
? Often the patients have a few drinks, go to sleep
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symptomless, but are awakened during the early hours ofmorning by excruciating joint pains.
? Alcohol leads to accumulation of lactic acid.
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TREATMENT
? Reduce dietary purine intake and restrict alcohol.
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? Increase renal excretion of urate by uricosuric drugs,which decrease the reabsorption of uric acid from kidney
tubules, e.g. probenecid.
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? Reduce urate production by allopurinol, an analog ofhypoxanthine and competitive inhibitor of xanthine
? Xanthine and hypoxanthine are more soluble and so are
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excreted more easily.
? Xanthine oxidase converts allopurinol to alloxanthine. It
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is a more effective inhibitor of xanthine oxidase.(`suicideinhibition`).
? Colchicine, an anti-inflammatory agent is very useful to
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arrest the arthritis in gout.Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome
? Inability of the body to salvage hypoxanthine and
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guanine due to the complete deficiency of HGPRTase(Hypoxanthine-Guanine phosphoribosyl transferase)
? It is an X-linked inherited disorder of purine
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metabolism, the disease is limited to males only? Different types of mutations in HGPRTase gene have
been identified in patients with Lesch Nyhan
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syndrome.? Incidence is 1:10,000 males.
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? HGPRT deficiency results in the accumulation of
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PRPP and decrease in GMP and IMP.? Increased level of Hypoxanthine and Guanine
in degradation to uric acid
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? Also PRPP accumulatesstimulates production of Purine nucleotides
increases their degradation to uric acid
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? Leads to hyperuricemia---Gout-like symptomsNephrolithiasis ( Renal stones)
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Neurological symptoms? self mutilation
? spasticity,
? aggressiveness,
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? mental retardationDIAGNOSIS
? Increase urinary urate / creatinine ratio
? Absent / reduced enzyme activity in
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lymphocytes or fibroblast
? Mutation analysis of Hypoxanthine-Guanine
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phosphoribosyl transferase (HGPRT) gene.Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)
? The deficiency of adenosine deaminase (ADA) causes
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severe
combined
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immunodeficiency(SCID)
involving T-cell and usually B-cell dysfunction.
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? ADA deficiency results in the accumulation of dATP.
? dATP is an inhibitor of ribonucleotide reductase
which causes reduced synthesis of other dNTPs and
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therefore DNA synthesis and cell replication isinhibited.
? Thus proliferation and differentiation of immune cells
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is compromised.SCID
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? Lymphocytes usually contain high levels of ADA.
? Therefore, ADA deficiency is mainly manifested as
reduced lymphocytes.
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? This leads to impaired cellular and humoral immunity.
? Hypouricemia is due to defective breakdown of
purine nucleotides.
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ADA estimation in CSF is used for the diagnosis of
tuberculous meningitis.
ADA levels can be estimated in various body fluids like
blood, CSF, pleural fluid, pericardial fluid, ascitic fluid, etc.
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SCID - Treatment? Antibiotics and periodic injections of
immunoglobulin will be lifesaving.
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? Bone marrow stem cells will increase both T
and B cells in the patients.
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? Enzyme replacement therapy with ADA-Polyethylene glycol ( the first successful
application of enzyme replacement therapy for
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an inherited disease.
? Gene therapy- recently, ADA gene has been
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successfully transfected into stem cells ofADA deficient children.
Purine Nucleoside Phophorylase
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Deficiency
? Less severe than ADA deficiency
? Associated with severe deficiency of T- cells
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but apparently normal B- cell function.
? Immune dysfunction appear to result from
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accumulation of dGTP, and dATP, whichinhibit ribonucleotide reductase and thereby
deplete cells of DNA precursors.