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This post was last modified on 30 November 2021


Post-translatonal modification.
Addition of group or deletion of parts to make a finished

protein.

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What group--
methyl
acetyl
phospho

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What purpose ----
targeting( some lipoprotein )
stability ( secreted glycoprotein )
function ( surface glycoprotein ).
Post-translational modification of individual

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Aminoacids.

PHOSPHORYLATION-
Phosphorylation of serine , threonine

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and tyrosine residue occurs by specific kinase. This is a common
signal transduction mechanism in hormone action and activation/
inactivation of enzyme e.g.- glycogen synthase and phosphorylase.

HYDROXYLATION---

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proline and lysine in collagen undergo

hydroxylation to form hydroxoproline and hydroxylysine which are
again important in the maturation of collagen .
Modification of Amino acids.

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CARBOXYLATION-
Carboxylation of glutamate residues

in coagulation factor like prothrombin is necessary for

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their function.

GLYCOSYLATION-
Glycosylation occurs by addition of
oligosaccharide chains to specific amino acid residue of

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the polypeptide and is seen in glycoproteins.
Attachment of gluose to hemoglobin in HBA1c is also an

example.
N AND C TERMINAL MODIFICATION.

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Both formylmethionine and methionine are removed by

aminopeptidases. They are not present in most mature
proteins.

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Large majority of eukaryotic proteins are acetylated at

the N terminal residues.

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C terminal amino acids are also modified in many proteins.
CLEAVAGE OF NASCENT POLPEPTIDE
CHAIN

Usually the nascent proteins are larger protein than their

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mature functional counterparts.
They are called pre-pro-proteins and undergo cleavages

to become smaller and act

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For examples, insulin is synthesized as a much larger-pre-
pro-insulin of molecular weight 11500Da while the
mature functional insulin is about half the size.

In all 38 amino acids are removed to generate a mature

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functional insulin molecule
Similarly, chymotrypsinogen and trypsinogen are also
converted into active chymotrypsin and trypsin by
cleavage.
TRIMMING-

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Many proteins are originally synthesised as

much bigger molecules. They undergo proteolytic
degradation or trimming to become smaller molecules

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which are functional Example- the formation of insulin
from preproinsulin, conversion of zymogens to active
digestive enzymes, e.g. trypsinogen to trypsin, pepsinogen
to pepsin.
PROTEIN FOLDING.

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Unique structure of protein involves the folding of its polypeptide

chain in a characteristics three dimensional structure.

This folding is essential for the biological function of the protein.

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CHAPERONS---
Proteins require other accessory protein called

chaperons to promote folding.

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Chaperones are the proteins which interact with partially folded or

improperly folded nascent protein to fascilitate correct folding.

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Function--
1.Helps in protein folding.
2.Prevent Aggregation.
Ex. Hsp in eukaryotes.

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Protein Folding

Proper folding of protein is essential for a cell to carry outs its normal

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cellular function.

Misfolded protein can result in a wide variety of a pathological condition.


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Loss of Protein Function.
PROTEIN FOLDING.
These are two classes?
Hsp70 protein and chaperonins.
Hsp70--

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The Hsp70 are called heat shock proteins

(molecular weight 70KDa) because they are more abundant in

cells stressed by heat.

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They are found in all organisms from bacteria to human

beings.

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These chaperones protect ptoteins which are

denatured by heat and from aggregates.


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Chaperonins--

The Hsp60 family of proteins are referred to as

chaperonins.

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Chaperonins usually act later along with Hsp70.
PROTEIN MISFOLDING DISEASES.

Protein misfolding disease can be classified in to two

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categories.

Diseases caused due to the misfolding or degradation of

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misfolded protein.

Disease caused due to accumulation of misfolded protein.

Reason for protein misfolding---

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Mutation.

Premature termination of translation.

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Fault in post- translational modification.
DISEASE CAUSED DUE TO THE ACCUMULATION
OF MISFOLDED PROTEIN.

PRION DISEASES--

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The prion diseases are neuro-degenerative caused

by misfolded protein.

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? They are characterised by dementia, loss of

coordination and encephalitis leading to fatal
outcome.
Prion diseases.

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Diseases Due to misfolded protein.
DISEASE

PROTEIN INVOLVED.

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Alzheimer's disease

Amyloid Beta ? peptide.

Spongiform encephalopaties.

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Prion protein

Huntington disease

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Huntington protein.
Alzheimer's Disease.
Spongiform encephalitis.

These diseases are also called spongiform encephalitis

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because they produce vacuolar or spongiform
changes in brain.

The best known examples is mad-cow disease or
bovine spongiform encephalitis.

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Prion infected Brain of a cattle.
Prion disease.

Creutzfeldt disease is an examples in humans.
The causative agent is a prion protein---PrP,

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(moleculer weight 28 Kda) coded by PrP gene on
chromosome 20.
Prion diseases may manifest as genetic, infectious and
sporadic diseases.
PROTEIN TARGETING.

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PROTEIN TARGETING-
PROTEIN FOR EXTERNAL SECRETION

The process is also called

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as "protein sorting'' or ``protein localization''. The
secreted proteins, plasma membrane integral proteins,
lysosomal enzymes and membrane proteins of ER are
synthesized on rough endoplasmic reticulum by

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membrane bound polyribosomes. The newly synthesized
protein is then delivered to the destined compartment.
Blobel and sabatini proposed the signal hypothesis to
explain the different destination of proteins. Guenter
Blobel was awarded Nobel Price in 1999.

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Protein targeting.
Protein targeting or protein sorting is the mechanism by

which a cell transport to the appropriate positions in the

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cell or outside of it.

Protein targeting is necessory for protein that are

destined to work outside the cytoplasm.

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The delivery process is carried out based on information

contained in the protein itself.

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Correct sorting is crucial for the cell, errors can lead to

disease.

Synthesized protein is transferred to an SRP receptor on

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endoplasmic reticulum, nascent protein is inserted into

translocation complex.
Targeting signal.

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Targeting signal are the piece of information that enable

the cellular transport machinery to correctly position a
protein inside or outside the cell.

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This information is contained in the polypeptide chain or

in the folded protein.

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In abscence of targeting signal, a protein will remain in the

cytoplasm.
Protein targeting.

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Protein has to correctly localised to perform proper

function.

Receptor---plasma membrane.

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DNA polymerase--nucleus.

Catalase-----peroxisomes.

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Insulin-------outside.
All protein begins to be synthesized on cytosolic

ribosomes.

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Sorting or translocation can occur

Co- tranlational.

Post-translational.

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If protein is for cytosolic function, the synthesis will be

finished on free ribosomes and the peptide is released
into the cytosol.

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Protein targeting.

The nascent protein is passed through the membrane into the

channels of ER. Then protein synthesis is completed, and the

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protein molecule is now inside the endoplasmic membrane. As
the nascent protein is traversing the inner membrane of ER,
carbohydrate moieties are added at particular regions by
specific enzymes; this is called co-translational glycosylation.

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CORRECT ADDRESS of DESTINATION is LABELED
The protiens carry an "address" that is specific for its correct

destination inside the cell. This is present in the carboxy
terminal end of proteins. Diseases due to defective protein

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targeting.
Protein targeting.
Protein Targeting
Zellweger syndrome is due to defective oxidation of very long chain

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fatty acids (VLCFA). Here the correct "address" is not printed on

the protein packet; so that it could not be delivered to the correct

location. Peroxisomal enzymes are produced; but their entry into

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peroxisomal is denied. This leads to insufficient oxidation of VLCFA.

Accumulation of VLCFA in CNS causes neurological impairment and

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death in childhood.

Another example is primary hyperoxaluria, which causes

kidney stones at an early age. The defect is due to protein trageting

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defect and the enzyme alanine glyoxylate amino transferase seen in

mitochondria, instead of its normal peroxisomal location.

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Iysosomes cell diseases due to non-entry of normal enzymes into

Iysosomes. Mannose-6-phosphate is the marker to target enzymes

to Iysosomes;this is absent.

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MITOCHONDRIAL DNA and RNA.

Some of mitochondrial protein synthesis is under the control

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of mitochondrial DNA;

but important proteins of the outer membrane of the

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mitochondria are synthesized under the influence of nuclear
DNA.

Shows that mitochondria are similar to bacteria more than

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mammalian cells.

This fact supports the theory that mitochondria are derived

from prokaryotes symbiotically adapted to multicellular

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organisms.
Maternal inheritance:

Since, the mitochondria are inherited cytoplasmically,

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the mtDNA is inherited from the mother.


Mother transmits mtDNA through oocyte.

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There are hunderds of copies of mtDNA in each cell

(nuclear DNA has only 2 copies).
During cell division, mtDNA replicates and they segregate

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to the daughter cells.

If a mutation occurs in mtDNA, the daughter cells may

inherit the mutant or normal mtDNA.

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Heteroplasmy is defined as the presence of normal and

mutant mtDNA in different proportions in different cells.
Defects in mitochondrial genome will lead to mitochondrial

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myopathies.

Leber`s hereditary optic neuropathy is caused by a single base

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mutation which alters one argrinine to histidine in the NADH
Coenzyme Q reductase. OXPHOS (oxidative
phosphorylation).
OXPHOS DISEASES

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Syndrome

Features

Leber`s Hereditary

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Complex l defect; blindness,cardiac

Neuropathy(LHON)

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conduction defects

Myoclonic epilepsy ragged

Myoclonic epilepsy, myopathy,

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Red fiber diseases (MERRF)

dementia

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Leigh`s syndrome

Complex l defect ; movement
disorders
GENOME AND PROTEOME.

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All the DNA contained in an organism or a cell which

includes both the chrosomes within the nucleus and the
DNA in mitochondria----GENOME.

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PROTEOME--Is the some of all proteins expressed by

the genome of an organism.

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